Contents

List of Figures . . .

. . .7

List of Tables . . .

. . .11

Preface

.13

Acknowledgments . . .

. .15

Abbreviations and Acronyms

. . .17

Definitions

.19

Standards and Organizations

. . .23

Executive Summary . . .

.27

Chapter 1—Housing History and Purpose

Introduction . . .

.1-1

Preurban Housing . . .

. . .1-1

Ephemeral Dwellings . . .

. . .1-1

Episodic Dwellings

.1-1

Periodic Dwellings . . .

. .1-1

Seasonal Dwellings

.1-2

Semipermanent Dwellings . . .

. .1-2

Permanent Dwellings . . .

. . .1-2

Urbanization . . .

.1-2

Trends in Housing . . .

. . .1-3

References . . .

. . .1-7

Additional Sources of Information . . .

. . .1-7

Chapter 2—Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

Introduction . . .

.2-1

Fundamental Physiologic Needs . . .

. .2-1

Fundamental Psychologic Needs

.2-3

Protection Against Disease . . .

. . .2-3

Protection Against Injury . . .

.2-5

Protection Against Fire

. .2-6

Fire Extinguishers

. .2-9

Protection Against Toxic Gases . . .

. . .2-9

References . . .

. . .2-9

Additional Sources of Information . . .

. . .2-11

Chapter 3—Housing Regulations

Introduction . . .

.3-1

History . . .

. .3-1

Zoning, Housing Codes, and Building Codes . . .

.3-2

Zoning and Zoning Ordinances . . .

.3-3

Exceptions to the Zoning Code

.3-5

Housing Codes . . .

.3-6

Building Codes . . .

.3-12

References . . .

. . .3-12

Additional Sources of Information . . .

. . .3-13

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Chapter 4—Disease Vectors and Pests

Introduction . . .

.4-1

Disease Vectors and Pests . . .

.4-1

Rodents

. . .4-1

Cockroaches

. . .4-4

Fleas . . .

. . .4-6

Flies

. . .4-7

Termites

. . .4-8

Fire Ants . . .

. . .4-13

Mosquitoes . . .

.4-15

References . . .

. . .4-17

Chapter 5—Indoor Air Pollutants and Toxic Materials

Introduction . . .

.5-1

Indoor Air Pollution

.5-1

Biologic Pollutants . . .

. .5-1

Chemical Pollutants

. . .5-6

Toxic Materials

. .5-13

Asbestos

. . .5-13

Lead . . .

. . .5-15

Arsenic

.5-19

References . . .

. . .5-20

Chapter 6—Housing Structure

Introduction . . .

.6-1

New Housing Terminology

.6-1

Old Housing Terminology . . .

. .6-6

Foundation . . .

. .6-8

Vapor Barriers . . .

. . .6-10

Crawl Space Barriers

. . .6-10

Vapor Barriers for Concrete Slab Homes

. . .6-10

Wall and Ceiling Vapors

. . .6-10

House Framing . . .

. .6-10

Foundation Sills

. . .6-10

Flooring Systems . . .

. . .6-10

Studs

. .6-11

Interior Walls

. .6-11

Stairways . . .

. . .6-12

Windows

. .6-12

Doors . . .

. .6-13

Roof Framing . . .

. . .6-15

Rafters

.6-15

Collar Beam

. . .6-15

Purlin . . .

. .6-15

Ridge Board

. . .6-15

Hip

. . .6-15

Roof Sheathing . . .

.6-15

Dormer

. . .6-15

Contents

Roofs

. . .6-15

Asphalt Shingle . . .

.6-15

EPDM . . .

.6-15

Asphalt Built-up Roofs

.6-16

Coal Tar Pitch Built-up Roofs

. .6-16

Slate Roofs

.6-16

Tile Roofs . . .

. .6-16

Copper Roofs . . .

. .6-16

Galvanized Iron Roofs . . .

. .6-16

Wood Shingle Roofs

. . .6-16

Roof Flashing

. .6-16

Gutters and Leaders . . .

.6-16

Exterior Walls and Trim . . .

. .6-16

Putting It All Together . . .

. . .6-17

References . . .

. . .6-21

Additional Sources of Information . . .

. . .6-22

Chapter 7—Environmental Barriers

Introduction . . .

.7-1

Roof

. . .7-2

Insulation . . .

. . .7-3

Siding . . .

. . .7-3

Fiber Cement . . .

. .7-4

Brick

. .7-4

Stucco

.7-4

Vinyl

. .7-5

Asbestos

. . .7-5

Metal . . .

. .7-5

References

. .7-6

Chapter 8—Rural Water Supplies and Water-quality Issues

Introduction . . .

.8-1

Water Sources . . .

. . .8-1

Source Location

.8-2

Well Construction . . .

. . .8-3

Sanitary Design and Construction

. .8-4

Pump Selection . . .

.8-4

Dug and Drilled Wells . . .

. . .8-4

Springs

.8-6

Cisterns

. . .8-6

Disinfection of Water Supplies . . .

. . .8-7

Chlorine Carrier Solutions . . .

. .8-9

Routine Water Chlorination (Simple) . . .

. . .8-9

Well Water Shock Chlorination . . .

.8-9

Backflow, Back-siphonage, and Other Water Quality Problems

. . .8-9

Backflow . . .

. . .8-9

Back-siphonage . . .

.8-10

Other Water Quality Problems . . .

. .8-10

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Protecting the Groundwater Supply . . .

. .8-10

References . . .

. . .8-11

Additional Sources of Information . . .

. . .8-12

Chapter 9—Plumbing

Introduction . . .

.9-1

Elements of a Plumbing System . . .

. .9-1

Water Service

. .9-1

Hot and Cold Water Main Lines . . .

. . .9-3

Water Heaters . . .

. .9-7

Drainage System . . .

. . .9-8

Corrosion Control . . .

. . .9-13

Water Conservation . . .

. .9-13

Putting It All Together . . .

. . .9-14

References . . .

. . .9-15

Additional Sources of Information . . .

. . .9-16

Chapter 10—On-site Wastewater Treatment

Introduction

. . .10-1

Treatment of Human Waste . . .

.10-1

On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems . . .

. .10-3

Septic Tank Systems

. .10-3

Alternative Septic Tank Systems . . .

. . .10-6

Maintaining the On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems

.10-8

Symptoms of Septic System Problems . . .

. .10-9

Septic Tank Inspection . . .

.10-9

References . . .

. .10-11

Additional Sources of Information

. .10-12

Chapter 11—Electricity

Introduction

. . .11-1

Flow of Electric Current

. . .11-2

Electric Service Entrance

. . .11-3

Service Drop . . .

. .11-3

Underground Service . . .

. .11-4

Electric Meter

.11-4

Grounding

.11-4

Two- or Three-wire Electric Services . . .

.11-6

Residential Wiring Adequacy . . .

. . .11-6

Wire Sizes and Types . . .

. . .11-7

Reducing Risk . . .

.11-7

Wire Sizes . . .

.11-7

Wire Types

. . .11-8

Types of Cable

.11-8

Flexible Cords . . .

. .11-9

The Problem . . .

. .11-9

The Standards . . .

.11-9

Contents

Safety Suggestions

.11-9

Wiring

.11-10

Open Wiring

.11-10

Concealed Knob and Tube Wiring . . .

.11-10

Electric Service Panel . . .

. . .11-10

Over-Current Devices

. .11-10

Circuit Breakers (Fuseless Service Panels)

. .11-11

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters

.11-11

Arc-fault Circuit Interrupters . . .

. .11-12

Fused Ampere Service Panel (Fuse Box)

. . .11-12

Electric Circuits . . .

.11-13

Outlet Switches and Junction Boxes . . .

. . .11-13

Grounding Outlets

. . .11-13

Polarized Plugs and Connectors

. . .11-14

Common Electrical Violations . . .

. .11-14

Excessive or Faulty Fusing

.11-15

Cords Run Through Walls or Doorways and Hanging Cords or Wires . . .

. .11-15

Temporary Wiring . . .

.11-16

Excessively Long Extension Cords

.11-16

Dead or Dummy Outlets . . .

. .11-16

Aluminum Wiring Inside the Home . . .

. . .11-16

Inspection Steps

. . .11-16

References . . .

. .11-17

Additional Sources of Information

. .11-17

Chapter 12—Heating, Air Conditioning, and Ventilating

Introduction

. . .12-1

Heating . . .

.12-4

Standard Fuels . . .

.12-4

Central Heating Units . . .

.12-7

Space Heaters

.12-12

Hydronic Systems . . .

.12-14

Direct Vent Wall Furnaces . . .

.12-15

Cooling

. . .12-15

Air Conditioning . . .

. .12-15

Circulation Fans

. .12-16

Evaporation Coolers

. .12-16

Safety

. .12-17

Chimneys . . .

.12-17

Fireplaces

.12-18

References . . .

. .12-19

Additional Sources of Information

. .12-19

Chapter 13—Energy Efficiency

Introduction

. . .13-1

Energy Systems . . .

.13-1

R-values

. . .13-1

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Roofs

. .13-2

Ridge Vents . . .

. .13-3

Fan-powered Attic Ventilation

. .13-3

White Roof Surface . . .

. .13-3

Insulation

. .13-3

Wall Insulation

. .13-4

Floor Insulation . . .

. .13-4

Doors . . .

. .13-5

Hot Water Systems

. .13-7

Windows

. .13-7

Caulking and Weather-stripping . . .

. .13-7

Replacing Window Frames . . .

. .13-7

Tinted Windows . . .

. .13-8

Reducing Heat Loss and Condensation

. .13-8

Glazing . . .

. .13-8

Layering

. .13-8

Other Options

. .13-9

Solar Energy

. .13-9

Active Solar Systems

. .13-9

Passive Solar Systems . . .

. .13-10

Conducting an Energy Audit . . .

. .13-10

References . . .

. .13-11

Additional Sources of Information

. .13-11

Chapter 14—Residential Swimming Pools and Spas

Introduction

. .14-1

Child-proofing

. .14-1

Hazards

. .14-2

Public Health Issues . . .

. .14-2

Diseases

. .14-3

Injuries

. .14-3

Water Testing Equipment

. .14-3

Disinfection

. .14-4

Content Turnover Rate

. .14-4

Filters

. .14-5

High-rate Sand Filters

. .14-5

Cartridge Filters

. .14-5

Diatomaceous Earth

. .14-5

Filter Loading Rates . . .

. .14-5

Disinfectants . . .

. .14-5

Effect of pH

. .14-6

Chlorine Disinfectants . . .

. .14-6

Pool Water Hardness and Alkalinity . . .

. .14-8

Liquid Chemical Feeders . . .

. .14-9

Positive Displacement Pump

. .14-9

Erosion and Flow-through Disinfectant Feeders

. . .14-10

Spas and Hot Tubs

.14-10

References . . .

. .14-11

Additional Sources of Information

. .14-11

Contents

List of Figures

Chapter 1—Housing History and Purpose

Figure 1.1.

Conditions in the Tenements

.1-3

Figure 1.2.

Levittown, New York

.1-6

Chapter 2—Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

Figure 2.1.

Circa 1890 Icebox

. . .2-5

Figure 2.2.

Smoke Alarm Testing

.2-8

Chapter 3—Housing Regulations

Figure 3.1.

Example of a Floor Area

. .3-5

Figure 3.2.

Example of an Angle of Light Obstruction . . .

.3-5

Chapter 4—Disease Vectors and Pests

Figure 4.1.

Field Identification of Domestic Rodents . . .

. .4-2

Figure 4.2.

Norway Rat . . .

. .4-2

Figure 4.3.

Roof Rat

.4-2

Figure 4.4.

Signs of Rodent Infestation . . .

. . .4-3

Figure 4.5.

Rodent Prevention

. . .4-4

Figure 4.6.

Live Trap for Rats . . .

.4-4

Figure 4.7.

Kill Traps . . .

.4-4

Figure 4.8.

American, Oriental, German, and Brown-banded Cockroaches . . .

.4-5

Figure 4.9.

American Cockroaches, Various Stages and Ages

. .4-5

Figure 4.10.

Oriental Cockroaches, Various Stages and Ages

. . .4-5

Figure 4.11.

German Cockroaches, Various Stages and Ages

. . .4-5

Figure 4.12.

Brown-banded Cockroaches, Various Stages and Ages

.4-5

Figure 4.13.

Wood Cockroach, Adult Male . . .

.4-5

Figure 4.14.

Reported Human Plague Cases (1970-1997) . . .

. .4-6

Figure 4.15.

Flea Life Cycle

. . .4-6

Figure 4.16.

Housefly (Musca domestica) . . .

. . .4-7

Figure 4.17.

Life Cycle of the Fly

. .4-8

Figure 4.18.

Termite Tube Extending From Ground to Wall

. . .4-9

Figure 4.19.

Termite Mud Shelter Tube Constructed Over A Brick Foundation

.4-9

Figure 4.20.

Differences Between Ants and Termites

. . .4-9

Figure 4.21.

Life Cycle of the Subterranean Termite

. . .4-10

Figure 4.22.

Subterranean Termite Risk in the United States

. . .4-11

Figure 4.23.

Typical Points of Attack by Termites in the Home

.4-12

Figure 4.24.

Construction Techniques That Discourage Termite Attacks . . .

.4-14

Figure 4.25.

Fire Ants

.4-14

Figure 4.26.

Range Expansion of Red Imported Fire Ants (RIFA) in the United States, 1918-1998

.4-15

Figure 4.27.

Fire Ant Mound . . .

. .4-15

Chapter 5—Indoor Air Pollutants and Toxic Materials

Figure 5.1.

Mold Growth in the Home . . .

. . .5-7

Figure 5.2.

Home Carbon Monoxide Monitor

. . .5-7

Figure 5.3.

Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Children’s Exposure . . .

. . .5-8

Figure 5.4.

Wood Products Label . . .

.5-10

Figure 5.5.

EPA Map of Radon Zones

. . .5-10

Figure 5.6.

Radon Entry

.5-11

Figure 5.7.

Home Radon Detectors

. .5-12

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Figure 5.9.

Radon-resistant Construction . . .

.5-12

Figure 5.10. Arsenic Label. . .

.5-19

Chapter 6—Housing Structure

Figure 6.1.

Housing Structure Terminology, Typical House Built Today

. .6-1

Figure 6.2.

Housing Structure Terminology, Typical House Built Between 1950 and 1980 . . .

.6-6

Figure 6.3.

Foundation. . .

.6-9

Figure 6.4.

Foundation Cracks

. .6-9

Figure 6.5.

Interior Stairway

.6-12

Figure 6.6.

Classifications of Windows

. .6-12

Figure 6.7.

Three-dimensional View of a Window . . .

. . .6-13

Figure 6.8.

Window Details

.6-13

Figure 6.9.

Wall Framing. . .

.6-17

Chapter 7—Environmental Barriers

Figure 7.1.

Sources of Moisture and Air Pollutants . . .

. . .7-1

Figure 7.2.

Blown Attic Insulation . . .

. . .7-3

Figure 7.3.

Depth of Attic Insulation . . .

.7-3

Figure 7.4.

Attic Insulation . . .

. .7-3

Figure 7.5.

Brick Structural Defect

. .7-4

Figure 7.6.

Corrosion in Piping Resulting From Galvanic Response

. .7-5

Chapter 8—Rural Water Supplies

Figure 8.1.

U.S. Water Supply by Source . . .

.8-1

Figure 8.2.

Cross Section of a Driven Well . . .

. . .8-3

Figure 8.3.

Well Seal . . .

. .8-4

Figure 8.4.

Converted Dug Well . . .

.8-4

Figure 8.5.

Recapped and Sealed Dug Well

. .8-5

Figure 8.6.

Drilled Well. . .

.8-5

Figure 8.7.

Typical Dug Well

. . .8-5

Figure 8.8.

Sewage in Drainage Ditch . . .

. . .8-6

Figure 8.9.

Drilled Well. . .

.8-6

Figure 8.10. Spring Box. . .

. .8-6

Chapter 9—Plumbing

Figure 9.1.

Typical Home Water System

.9-1

Figure 9.2.

House Service Installation

. . .9-2

Figure 9.3.

Gas Water Heater

. . .9-7

Figure 9.4.

Temperature-pressure Valve

. .9-8

Figure 9.5.

Branch Connections

.9-10

Figure 9.6.

P-trap. . .

. . .9-10

Figure 9.7.

Types of S-traps . . .

. .9-10

Figure 9.8.

Trap Seal: (a) Seal Intact; (b) Fixture Draining; (c) Loss of Gas Seal . . .

. . .9-10

Figure 9.9.

Loss of Trap Seal in Lavatory Sink

. . .9-11

Figure 9.10. Back-to-back Venting (Toilet). . .

.9-11

Figure 9.11. Back-to-back Venting (Sink). . .

. .9-11

Figure 9.12. Wall-hung Fixtures

. .9-12

Figure 9.13. Unit Vent Used in Bathtub Installation

. .9-12

Figure 9.14. Toilet Venting. . .

. . .9-12

Figure 9.15. Janitor’s Sink. . .

.9-13

Figure 9.16. Common Y-trap. . .

. .9-13

Figure 9.17. Hose Bib With Vacuum Breaker

.9-13

List of Figures

Chapter 10—On-site Wastewater Treatment

Figure 10.1. Conventional On-site Septic System . . .

.10-1

Figure 10.2. Straight Pipe Discharge. . .

. .10-2

Figure 10.3. Clear Creek Water Contaminated With Sewage. . .

. .10-2

Figure 10.4. Septic Tank System

.10-3

Figure 10.5. Septic Tank. . .

. .10-4

Figure 10.6. On-site Sewage Disposal System Site Evaluation Form

. .10-5

Figure 10.7. Cross-section of an Absorption Field

. . .10-5

Figure 10.8. Mound System Cutaway

. . .10-7

Figure 10.9. Low Pressure On-site System . . .

. . .10-7

Figure 10.10. Plant-rock Filter System . . .

.10-8

Figure 10.11. Sludge and Scum in Multicompartment Septic Tank . . .

.10-10

Chapter 11—Electricity

Figure 11.1. Utility Overview

. . .11-3

Figure 11.2. Entrance Head. . .

. .11-3

Figure 11.3. Armored Cable Service Entrance

. . .11-4

Figure 11.4. Breakers. . .

.11-4

Figure 11.5. Thin-wall Conduit

.11-4

Figure 11.6. Electric Meter. . .

. . .11-5

Figure 11.7. Typical Service Entrance

. . .11-5

Figure 11.8. Grounding Scheme . . .

.11-6

Figure 11.9. Grounding. . .

.11-6

Figure 11.10. Three-wire Service . . .

. .11-7

Figure 11.11. Two-wire Service . . .

. . .11-7

Figure 11.12. Wire Markings. . .

. .11-8

Figure 11.13. Armored Cable.

. . .11-9

Figure 11.14.

200-Amp Service Box. . .

. . .11-11

Figure 11.15. External Power Shutoff and Meter

. .11-11

Figure 11.16. Ground Fault Circuit Interruptor . . .

. . .11-12

Figure 11.17. Arc Interrupter

.11-12

Figure 11.18. Types of Fuses. .

. . .11-13

Figure 11.19. Appliance Ground and Grounded Plug

.11-14

Chapter 12—Heating, Air Conditioning, and Ventilating

Figure 12.1. Heat Pump in Cooling Mode . . .

. . .12-5

Figure 12.2. Piping Hookup for Inside Tank Installation

.12-6

Figure 12.3. Piping Hookup for Buried Outside Tank

. . .12-6

Figure 12.4. Minimum Clearance for Pipeless Hot Air and Gravity Warm Air Furnace

. . .12-7

Figure 12.5.

Minimum Clearance for Steam or Hot Water Boiler and Mechanical Warm-air Furnace .12-7

Figure 12.6. Heating Ducts Covered With Asbestos Insulation . . .

. . .12-7

Figure 12.7. Typical Underfeed Coal Stoker Installation in Small Boilers . . .

. .12-8

Figure 12.8. Cutaway View of Typical High-pressure Gun Burner . . .

.12-9

Figure 12.9. Gas-fired Boiler . . .

.12-9

Figure 12.10. Typical Gravity One-pipe Heating System

. .12-10

Figure 12.11. One-pipe Gravity Water Heating System

. . .12-11

Figure 12.12. Two-pipe Gravity Water Heating System

. . .12-11

Figure 12.13. Warm-air Convection Furnace . . .

. .12-11

Figure 12.14. Cross-sectional View of Building Showing Forced-warm-air Heating System

.12-12

Figure 12.15. Perforated-sleeve Burner . . .

.12-13

Figure 12.16. Condition of Burner Flame With Different Rates of Fuel Flow

. .12-13

Figure 12.17. Wall and Ceiling Clearance Reduction . . .

. .12-14

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

List of Tables

Chapter 8—Rural Water Supplies and Water-quality Issues

Table 8.1.

Recommended Minimum Distance Between Well and Pollution Sources . . .

. .8-2

Table 8.2.

Types of Wells for Accessing Groundwater, Well Depths, and Diameters

. .8-3

Table 8.3.

Disinfection Methods

. . .8-7

Table 8.4.

Chlorination Guide for Specific Water Conditions

. . .8-8

Table 8.5.

Preparing a 200-ppm Chlorine Solution . . .

. .8-9

Table 8.6.

Analyzing and Correcting Water Quality Problems . . .

. . .8-11

Chapter 9—Plumbing

Table 9.1.

Fixture Unit Values

. .9-9

Table 9.2.

Sanitary House Drain Sizes

. .9-9

Table 9.3.

Minimum Fixture Service Pipe Diameters

. . .9-12

Chapter 10—On-site Wastewater Treatment

Table 10.1.

Mound System Advantages and Disadvantages

. .10-6

Table 10.2.

Low-pressure Pipe Systems Advantages and Disadvantages . . .

. . .10-7

Table 10.3.

Plant Rock Filter System Advantages and Disadvantages

.10-8

Table 10.4.

Septic Tank System Troubleshooting . . .

.10-10

Chapter 13—Energy Efficiency

Table 13.1.

Cost-effective Insulation R-values for Existing Homes . . .

. . .13-2

Table 13.2.

R-values of Roof Components . . .

. .13-3

Table 13.3.

Floor Insulation . . .

.13-5

Chapter 14—Residential Swimming Pools and Spas

Table 14.1.

Pool Water Quality Problem Solving

. . .14-7

Table 14.2.

pH Effect on Chlorine Disinfection . . .

.14-8

Table 14.3.

Chlorine Use in Swimming Pools . . .

. . .14-8

Table 14.4.

Swimming Pool Operating Parameters

. .14-9

Table 14.5.

Spa and Hot Tub Operating Parameters

.14-11

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Preface

ousing quality is key to the public’s health. Translating that simple axiom into action is the topic of this book.

In the 30 years since the first edition was published, the nation’s understanding of how specific housing con-

ditions are related to disease and injury has matured and deepened. This new edition will enable public health

and housing professionals to grasp our shared responsibility to ensure that our housing stock is safe, decent, afford-

able, and healthy for our citizens, especially those who are particularly vulnerable and who spend more time in the

home, such as children and the elderly.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

(HUD) have worked together with many others to discover the ways to eliminate substandard housing conditions that

harm health. For example, the advances in combating water borne diseases was possible, in part, through standardiza-

tion of indoor plumbing and sewage, and the institution of federal, state and local regulations and codes. Childhood

lead poisoning has been dramatically reduced, in part, through the elimination of residential lead-based paint hazards.

Other advances have been made to protect people from carbon monoxide poisoning, falls, safety hazards, electrocu-

tion, and many other risks.

However, more must be done to control existing conditions and to understand emerging threats that remain poorly

understood. For example, nearly 18 million Americans live with the health threat of contaminated drinking water

supplies, especially in rural areas where on-site wastewater systems are prevalent. Despite progress, thousands of chil-

dren still face the threat of lead poisoning from residential lead paint hazards. The increase in asthma in recent

decades and its relationship to housing conditions such as excess moisture, mold, settled dust allergens and ventilation

remains the subject of intense research. The impact of energy conservation measures on the home environment is still

unfolding. Simple affordable construction techniques and materials that minimize moisture problems and indoor air

pollution, improve ventilation, and promote durability and efficiency continue to be uncovered.

A properly constructed and maintained home is nearly timeless in its usefulness. A home is often the biggest single

investment people make. This manual will help to ensure that the investment is a sound one that promotes healthy

and safe living.

Home rehabilitation has increased significantly in the last few years and HUD has prepared a nine-part series, The

Rehab Guide, that can assist both residents and contractors in the rehabilitation process. For additional information,

go to http://www.huduser.org/publications/destech/rehabgui.html.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Acknowledgments

e acknowledge the suggestions, assistance, and review of numerous individuals and organizations that went

into the original and current versions of this manual. The revisions to this manual were made by a team of

environmental health, housing, and public health professionals led by Professor Joe Beck, Dr. Darryl

Barnett, Dr. Gary Brown, Dr. Carolyn Harvey, Professor Worley Johnson, Dr. Steve Konkel, and Professor Charles

Treser.

Individuals from the following organizations were involved in the various drafts of this manual:

• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Office of Healthy Homes and Lead Hazard

Control;

• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),

National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH);

• National Healthy Homes Training Center and Network;

• National Association of Housing and Redevelopment Officials;

• Department of Building, Housing and Zoning (Allentown, Pennsylvania);

• Code Enforcement Associates (East Orange, New Jersey);

• Eastern Kentucky University (Richmond, Kentucky);

• University of Washington; Seattle (Washington); and

• Battelle Memorial Institute (Columbus, Ohio).

Specifically, our gratitude goes to the following reviewers:

• Dr. David Jacobs, Martin Nee, and Dr. Peter Ashley, HUD;

• Pat Bohan, East Central University;

• James Larue, The House Mender Inc.;

• Ellen Tohn, ERT Associates;

• Dr. Stephen Margolis, Emory University; and

• Joseph Ponessa and Rebecca Morley, Healthy Homes Training Center.

A special thank-you for assistance from Carolyn Case-Compton, Habitat for Humanity, 123 East Main Street,

Morehead, Kentucky. Pictures of a home under construction are courtesy of Habitat for Humanity and John King,

home builder and instructor, Rowan County Technical College, Morehead, Kentucky; and Don W. Johnson, building

photographer of Habitat for Humanity.

In addition, a special thank you to CAPT Craig Shepherd and CAPT Michael Herring, Commissioned Corps, U.S.

Public Health Service, CDC/NCEH/Environmental Health Services Branch for their research and review during the

editing of this manual. Special thanks to Pamela S. Wigington and Joey L. Johnson for their hard work preparing this

manual for publication and to Teresa M. Sims for Web publication.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABS

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene

ADA

Americans with Disabilities Act

AGA

American Gas Association

ALA

American Lung Association

ANSI

American National Standards Institute

APHA

American Public Health Association

ASME

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASSE

American Society of Structural Engineers

ASTM

American Society for Testing Materials

ATSDR

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

AWG

American Wire Gauge

AWWA

American Waters Works Association

BTU

British thermal unit

CDC

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CFR

Code of Federal Regulations

CGA

Canadian Gas Association

carbon monoxide

CPR

cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CPSC

Consumer Product Safety Commission

CSIA

Chimney Safety Institute of America

DDT

dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane

diatomaceous earth

DPD

N,N-diethyl-p-phenylene diamine

DWV

drain, waste, and vent

EIFS

exterior insulation and finish system

EPA

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EPDM

ethylene propylene dieneterpolymer

ETS

environmental tobacco smoke

FHA

Federal Housing Administration

Factory Mutual

GFCI

ground fault circuit interrupter

HEPA

high-efficiency particulate air

HHS

Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of

HSC

Home Safety Council

HUD

Housing and Urban Development, U.S. Department of

HVAC

heating, ventilating and air conditioning

IAPMO

International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials

ICC

International Code Council

IPM

integrated pest management

ISO

International Standard Organization

kilogram

LPP

low-pressure pipe

MPMH

Military Pest Management Handbook

MSS

Mechanical Standardization Society of the Valve and Fitting Industry

NCEH

National Center for Environmental Health

NCI

National Cancer Institute

NIA

National Institute on Aging

NSF

National Science Foundation

NTU

nephelometric turbidity unit

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Definitions

Accessory building or structure: a detached building or structure in a secondary or subordinate capacity from the

main or principal building or structure on the same premises.

Appropriate authority/Authority having jurisdiction (AHJ): a person within the governmental structure of the

corporate unit who is charged with the administration of the appropriate code.

Ashes: the residue from burning combustible materials.

Attic: any story or floor of a building situated wholly or partly within the roof, and so designed, arranged, or built to

be used for business, storage, or habitation.

Basement: the lowest story of a building, below the main floor and wholly or partially lower than the surface of the ground.

Building: a fixed construction with walls, foundation, and roof, such as a house, factory, or garage.

Bulk container: any metal garbage, rubbish, or refuse container having a capacity of 2 cubic yards or greater and which is

equipped with fittings for hydraulic or mechanical emptying, unloading, or removal.

Central heating system: a single system supplying heat to one or more dwelling unit(s) or more than one rooming unit.

Chimney: a vertical masonry shaft of reinforced concrete, or other approved noncombustible, heat-resisting material

enclosing one or more flues, for the purpose of removing products of combustion from solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel.

Dilapidated: in a state of disrepair or ruin and no longer adequate for the purpose or use for which it was originally intended.

Dormitory: a building or a group of rooms in a building used for institutional living and sleeping purposes by four or

more persons.

Dwelling: any enclosed space wholly or partly used or intended to be used for living, sleeping, cooking, and eating.

(Temporary housing, as hereinafter defined, shall not be classified as a dwelling.) Industrialized housing and modular

construction that conform to nationally accepted industry standards and are used or intended for use for living,

sleeping, cooking, and eating purposes shall be classified as dwellings.

Dwelling unit: a room or group of rooms located within a dwelling forming a single habitable unit with facilities used

or intended to be used by a single family for living, sleeping, cooking, and eating.

Egress: arrangements and openings to assure a safe means of exit from buildings.

Extermination: the control and elimination of insects, rodents, or other pests by eliminating their harborage places;

by removing or making inaccessible materials that may serve as their food; by poisoning, spraying, fumigating,

trapping, or any other recognized and legal pest elimination methods approved by the local or state authority having

such administrative authority. Extermination is one of the components of integrated pest management.

Fair market value: a price at which both buyers and sellers will do business.

Family: one or more individuals living together and sharing common living, sleeping, cooking, and eating facilities

(See also Household).

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Flush toilet: a toilet bowl that can be flushed with water supplied under pressure and that is equipped with a water-

sealed trap above the floor level.

Garbage: animal and vegetable waste resulting from handling, preparation, cooking, serving, and nonconsumption of food.

Grade: the finished ground level adjacent to a required window.

Guest: an individual who shares a dwelling unit in a nonpermanent status for not more than 30 days.

Habitable room: a room or enclosed floor space used or intended to be used for living, sleeping, cooking or eating

purposes, excluding bathrooms, laundries, furnace rooms, pantries, kitchenettes and utility rooms of less than

50 square feet of floor space, foyers, or communicating corridors, stairways, closets, storage spaces, workshops, and hobby

and recreation areas.

Health officer: the legally designated health authority of the jurisdiction or that person’s authorized representative.

Heated water: water heated to a temperature of not less than 120°F-130°F (49°C-54°C) at the outlet.

Heating device: all furnaces, unit heaters, domestic incinerators, cooking and heating stoves and ranges, and other similar devices.

Household: one or more individuals living together in a single dwelling unit and sharing common living, sleeping,

cooking, and eating facilities (see also Family).

Infestation: the presence within or around a dwelling of any insects, rodents, or other pests.

Integrated pest management: a coordinated approach to managing roaches, rodents, mosquitoes, and other pests that

combines inspection, monitoring, treatment, and evaluation, with special emphasis on the decreased use of toxic agents.

Kitchen: any room used for the storage and preparation of foods and containing the following equipment: sink or

other device for dishwashing, stove or other device for cooking, refrigerator or other device for cold storage of food,

cabinets or shelves for storage of equipment and utensils, and counter or table for food preparation.

Kitchenette: a small kitchen or an alcove containing cooking facilities.

Lead-based paint: any paint or coating with lead content equal to or greater than 1 milligram per square centimeter,

or 0.5% by weight.

Multiple dwelling: any dwelling containing more than two dwelling units.

Occupant: any individual, over 1 year of age, living, sleeping, cooking, or eating in or having possession of a dwelling

unit or a rooming unit; except that in dwelling units a guest shall not be considered an occupant.

Operator: any person who has charge, care, control or management of a building, or part thereof, in which dwelling

units or rooming units are let.

Ordinary summer conditions: a temperature 10°F (-12°C) below the highest recorded temperature in the locality for

the prior 10-year period.

Ordinary winter conditions: mean a temperature 15°F (-9.4°C) above the lowest recorded temperature in the locality

for the prior 10-year period.

Definitions

Owner: any person who alone, jointly, or severally with others (a) shall have legal title to any premises, dwelling, or

dwelling unit, with or without accompanying actual possession thereof, or (b) shall have charge, care or control of any

premises, dwelling, or dwelling unit, as owner or agent of the owner, or as executor, administrator, trustee, or guardian

of the estate of the owner.

Permissible occupancy: the maximum number of individuals permitted to reside in a dwelling unit, rooming unit, or dormitory.

Person: any individual, firm, corporation, association, partnership, cooperative, or government agency.

Plumbing: all of the following supplied facilities and equipment: gas pipes, gas burning equipment, water pipes,

garbage disposal units, waste pipes, toilets, sinks, installed dishwashers, bathtubs, shower baths, installed clothes

washing machines, catch basins, drains, vents, and similarly supplied fixtures, and the installation thereof, together with all

connections to water, sewer, or gas lines.

Privacy: the existence of conditions which will permit an individual or individuals to carry out an activity commenced

without interruption or interference, either by sight or sound by unwanted individuals.

Rat harborage: any conditions or place where rats can live, nest or seek shelter.

Ratproofing: a form of construction that will prevent the entry or exit of rats to or from a given space or building, or

from gaining access to food, water, or harborage. It consists of the closing and keeping closed of every opening in

foundations, basements, cellars, exterior and interior walls, ground or first floors, roofs, sidewalk gratings, sidewalk

openings, and other places that may be reached and entered by rats by climbing, burrowing, or other methods, by the

use of materials impervious to rat gnawing and other methods approved by the appropriate authority.

Refuse: leftover and discarded organic and nonorganic solids (except body wastes), including garbage, rubbish, ashes, and dead animals.

Refuse container: a watertight container that is constructed of metal, or other durable material impervious to rodents,

that is capable of being serviced without creating unsanitary conditions, or such other containers as have been

approved by the appropriate authority (see also Appropriate Authority). Openings into the container, such as covers and

doors, shall be tight fitting.

Rooming house: any dwelling other than a hotel or motel or that part of any dwelling containing one or more

rooming units, or one or more dormitory rooms, and in which persons either individually or as families are housed with or

without meals being provided.

Rooming unit: any room or group of rooms forming a single habitable unit used or intended to be used for living

and sleeping, but not for cooking purposes.

Rubbish: nonputrescible solid wastes (excluding ashes) consisting of either: (a) combustible wastes such as paper,

cardboard, plastic containers, yard clippings and wood; or (b) noncombustible wastes such as cans, glass, and crockery.

Safety: the condition of being reasonably free from danger and hazards that may cause accidents or disease.

Space heater: a self-contained heating appliance of either the convection type or the radiant type and intended

primarily to heat only a limited space or area such as one room or two adjoining rooms.

Supplied: paid for, furnished by, provided by, or under the control of the owner, operator or agent.

System: the dynamic interrelationship of components designed to enact a vision.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Standards and Organizations

In addition to the standards and organizations listed in this section, the U.S. Justice Department enforces the

requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (http://www.ada.gov) and assures that products fully

comply with the provisions of the act to ensure equal access for physically challenged users.

ABPA

The American Backflow Prevention Association, http://abpa.org

Develops cross-connections; ABPA is an organization whose members have a common interest in

protecting drinking water from contamination.

ACI

American Concrete Institute, http://www.concrete.org/general/home.asp

Has produced more than 400 technical documents, reports, guides, specifications, and codes for the best use of

concrete. ACI conducts more than 125 educational seminars each year and has 13 certification programs

for concrete practitioners, as well as a scholarship program to promote careers in the industry.

AGA

American Gas Association, http://www.aga.org

Develops standards, tests, and qualifies products used in gas lines and gas appliance installations.

AGC

Associated General Contractors of America, http://www.agc.org

Is dedicated to improving the construction industry by educating the industry to employ the finest skills,

promoting use of the latest technology and advocating building the best quality projects for owners—

public and private.

AMSA

Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies, http://www.amsa-cleanwater.org

Represents the interests of the country’s wastewater treatment agencies.

ANSI

American National Standards Institute, http://www.ansi.org

Coordinates work among U.S. standards writing groups. Works in conjunction with other groups such as

ISO, ASME, and ASTM.

ARI

Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, http://www.ari.org

Provides information about the 21st Century Research (21-CR) initiative, a private-public sector research

collaboration of the heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration industry, with a focus on

energy conservation, indoor environmental quality, and environmental protection.

ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineers, http://www.asce.org

Provides essential value to its members, careers, partners, and the public by developing leadership,

advancing technology, advocating lifelong learning, and promoting the profession.

ASHI

The American Society of Home Inspectors, http://www.ashi.org

Is a source of information about the home inspection profession.

ASHRAE

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, http://www.ashrae.org

Writes standards and guidelines that include uniform methods of testing for rating purposes, describe

recommended practices in designing and installing equipment and provide other information to guide the

industry. ASHRAE has more than 80 active standards and guideline project committees, addressing such

broad areas as indoor air quality, thermal comfort, energy conservation in buildings, reducing refrigerant

emissions, and the designation and safety classification of refrigerants.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

ASME

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, http://www.asme.org

Develops standards for materials and testing as well as finished products.

ASSE

American Society of Sanitary Engineering, http://www.asse.org

Develops standards and qualifies products for plumbing and sanitary installations.

ASTM

American Society for Testing and Materials, http://www.astm.org

Is one of the largest voluntary standards development organizations in the world-a trusted source for

technical standards for materials, products, systems, and services.

AWWA

American Water Works Association, http://www.awwa.org

Promotes public health through improvement of the quality of water and develops standards for valves, fittings, and other

equipment.

CGA

Canadian Gas Association, http://www.cga.ca

Develops standards, tests, and qualifies products used in gas lines and gas appliance installations.

CPSC

U.S Consumer Product Safety Commission, http://www.cpsc.gov

Protects the public from unreasonable risks for serious injury or death from more than 15,000 types of

consumer products. CPSC is committed to protecting consumers and families from products that pose a

fire, electrical, chemical, or mechanical hazard or can injure children.

CRBT

Center for Resourceful Building Technology, http://www.crbt.org

Contains the online Guide to Resource-Efficient Building Elements, which provides information about

environmentally efficient construction materials, including foundations, wall systems, panels, insulation,

siding, roofing, doors, windows, interior finishing, and floor coverings.

EPA

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov

Protects human health and the environment.

Factory Mutual, http://fmglobal.com

Develops standards and qualifies products for use by the general public and develops standards for materials,

products, systems, and services.

HFHI

Habitat for Humanity International, http://www.habitat.org

Is a nonprofit, ecumenical Christian housing ministry. HFHI seeks to eliminate poverty housing and

homelessness from the world, and to make decent shelter a matter of conscience and action.

HUD

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, http://www.hud.gov

As part of the HUD efforts toward eliminating childhood lead poisoning, the Office of Healthy Homes

and Lead Hazard Control is sharing local lead ordinances and regulations that have proven effective in

helping communities deal with lead-based paint hazards. Also, the design and construction of

manufactured housing are regulated by the federal government and must comply with HUD’s

Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards. Modular and panelized construction must

comply with model or local building codes.

IAPMO

International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, http://www.iapmo.org

Developed and maintains the Uniform Plumbing Code and the Uniform Mechanical Code.

Standards and Organizations

ICBO

The Uniform Building Code (UBC)/International Conference of Building Officials,

http://www.iccsafe.org

Is the most widely adopted model building code in the world and is a proven document meeting the

needs of government units charged with enforcement of building regulation. Published triennially, the

UBC provides complete regulations covering all major aspects of building design and construction relating

to fire and life safety and structural safety. The requirements reflect the latest technologic advances available

in the building and fire- and life-safety industry.

ICC

International Code Council, http://www.iccsafe.org

Produces the most widely adopted and enforced building safety codes in the United States (I-Codes).

International Residential Code (IRC) 2003 has been adopted by many states, jurisdictions, and localities.

IRC also references several industry standards such as ACI 318, ASCE 7, ASTM, and ANSI standards that

cover specific load, load combinations, design methods, and material specifications.

ISO

International Standard Organization, http://www.iso.org

Provides internationally recognized certification for manufacturers that comply with high standards of

quality control, developed standards ISO-9000 through ISO-9004, and qualifies and lists products suitable for

use in plumbing installations.

MSS

Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc., http://www.mss-hq.com

Develops technical codes and standards for the valve and fitting industry.

NACHI

The National Association of Certified Home Inspectors, http://www.nachi.org/index.htm

Is the world’s largest, most elite nonprofit inspection association.

NAHB

National Association of Home Builders, http://www.nahb.org

Is a trade association representing more than 220,000 residential home building and remodeling industry

members. NAHB is affiliated with more than 800 state and local home builders associations around the

country. NAHB urges codes and standards development and application that protects public health and

safety without cost impacts that decrease affordability and consequently prevent people from moving into

new, healthier, safer homes.

NEC

National Electrical Code, http://www.nfpa.org

Protects public safety by establishing requirements for electrical wiring and equipment in virtually all

buildings.

NESC

National Environmental Services Center, http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/nesc/nesc_about.htm

Is a repository for water, wastewater, solid waste, and environmental training research.

NFPA

National Fire Protection Association, http://www.nfpa.org/index.asp

Develops, publishes, and disseminates more than 300 consensus codes and standards intended to

minimize the possibility and effects of fire and other risks.

NOWRA

National Onsite Wastewater Recycling Association, http://www.nowra.org

Provides leadership and promotes the onsite wastewater treatment and recycling industry through

education, training, communication, and quality tools to support excellence in performance.

NSF

National Sanitation Foundation, http://www.nsf.org

Develops standards for equipment, products and services; a nonprofit organization now known as NSF

International.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Executive Summary

he original Basic Housing Inspection manual was published in 1976 by the Center for Disease Control (now

known as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Its Foreword stated:

“The growing numbers of new families and the increasing population in the United States have

created a pressing demand for additional housing that is conducive to healthful living. These

demands are increased by the continuing loss of existing housing through deterioration resulting

from age and poor maintenance. Large numbers of communities in the past few years have adopted

housing codes and initiated code enforcement programs to prevent further deterioration of existing

housing units. This growth in housing activities has caused a serious problem for communities in

obtaining qualified personnel to provide the array of housing service needed, such as information,

counseling, technical advice, inspections, and enforcement. As a result many agencies throughout the

country are conducting comprehensive housing inspection training courses. This publication has

been designed to be an integral part of these training sessions.”

The original Basic Housing Inspection manual has been successfully used for several decades by public health and

housing personnel across the United States. Although much has changed in the field of housing construction and

maintenance, and health and safety issues have expanded, the manual continues to have value, especially as it relates to

older housing.

Many housing deficiencies impact on health and safety. For example, lead-based paint and dust may contribute to

lead poisoning in children; water leakage and mold may contribute to asthma episodes; improper use and storage of

pesticides may result in unintentional poisoning; and lack of working smoke, ionization, and carbon monoxide alarms may

cause serious injury and death.

Government agencies have been very responsive to “healthy homes” issues. The U.S. Department of Housing and

Urban Development (HUD) created an office with an exclusive focus on healthy homes. In 2003, CDC joined HUD

in the effort to improve housing conditions through the training of environmental health practitioners, public health

nurses, housing specialists, and others who have interest and responsibility for creating healthy homes.

The revised Basic Housing Inspection manual, renamed the Healthy Housing Reference Manual, responds to the

enormous changes that have occurred in housing construction methods and materials and to new knowledge related

to the impact of housing on health and safety. New chapters have been added, making the manual more

comprehensive. For example, an entire chapter is devoted to rural water supplies and on-site wastewater treatment. A

new chapter was added that discusses issues related to residential swimming pools and spas. At over 230 pages, the

comprehensive revised manual is designed primarily as a reference document for public health and housing

professionals who work in government and industry.

The Healthy Housing Reference Manual contains 14 chapters, each with a specific focus. All chapters contain annotated

references and a listing of sources for additional topic information. A summary of the content of each chapter follows:

Chapter One, Housing History and Purpose, describes the history of dwellings and urbanization and housing

trends during the last century.

Chapter Two, Basic Principles of Healthy Housing, describes the basic principles of healthy housing and

safety—physiologic needs, psychologic needs, protection against injury and disease—and lays the groundwork

for following chapters.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Chapter Three, Housing Regulations, reviews the history of housing regulations, followed by a discussion of

zoning, housing, and building codes.

Chapter Four, Disease Vectors and Pests, provides a detailed analysis of disease vectors that have an impact on

residences. It includes information on the management of mice, rats, cockroaches, fleas, flies, termites, and fire ants.

Chapter Five, Indoor Air Pollution and Toxic Materials, provides information on indoor air pollution, both

biologic and chemical, and to toxic materials in the home, including methods for controlling these hazards. The

impact of cockroaches, dust mites, pets, and mold are discussed. Also included is information about the impact

of carbon monoxide, ozone, tobacco smoke, volatile organic compounds, radon, and pesticides.

Chapter Six, Housing Structure, contains information about “older” housing construction and new construction

materials and methods. The chapter also introduces new terminologies and includes information about

foundations, vapor barriers, house framing, roof framing, exterior walls, and roofs.

Chapter Seven, Environmental Barriers, provides information on roofing, insulation, and siding materials.

Chapter Eight, Rural Water Supplies and Water-quality Issues, covers issues related to the drilling and proper

maintenance of wells. Research information is provided that indicates that many wells are not properly sealed,

allowing for the leakage of contaminated water into wells during hurricanes and periods of significant flooding.

Chapter Nine, Plumbing, provides information on plumbing standards and how they can be accessed, followed

by a review of the elements of a residential water delivery system, the types of available hot-water heaters,

drainage systems, and methods for water conservation. It also includes a visual synthesis of water system

components during new residential construction.

Chapter Ten, On-site Wastewater Treatment, complements chapter seven by providing information on proper

on-site methods for the treatment of human waste.

Chapter Eleven, Electricity, expands on information contained in the original manual covering such topics as

breaker systems and polarized plugs and connectors. It also provides a format for the inspection of residential

electrical systems.

Chapter Twelve, Heating, Air Conditioning, and Ventilation, provides information about types of residential

fuels and heating systems, including solar heating and minor sources of heating (e.g., coal-fired, oil-fired, gas-

fired, and electrical space heaters). Chimney and fireplace safety and the variety of cooling systems are also

discussed.

Chapter Thirteen, Energy Efficiency, discusses energy efficiency, including R-values and their interpretation, roof

ventilation, wall and floor insulation, and door and window energy efficiency systems. It also discusses active and

passive solar systems and provides a methodology for conducting a residential energy audit.

Chapter Fourteen, Residential Swimming Pools and Spas, provides information about child safety, pool and spa

hazards, and diseases. It also provides information on methods for testing and ensuring a safe water system and

on methods for spa and pool disinfection. Further, it covers concerns related to unregulated individual

residential pools and spas.

Executive Summary

The quality of housing plays a decisive role in the health status of its occupants. Substandard housing conditions have

been linked to adverse health effects such as childhood lead poisoning, asthma and other respiratory conditions, and

unintentional injuries. This new and revised Healthy Housing Reference Manual is an important reference for anyone

with responsibility and interest in creating and maintaining healthy housing.

The housing design and construction industry has made great progress in recent years through the development of

new innovative techniques, materials technologies, and products. The HUD Rehab Guide series was developed to

inform the design and construction industry about state-of-the-art materials and innovative practices in housing

rehabilitation. The series focuses on building technologies, materials, components, and techniques rather than on

projects such as adding a new room. The nine volumes each cover a distinct element of housing rehabilitation and

feature breakthrough materials, labor-saving tools, and cost-cutting practices. The nine volumes address foundations;

exterior walls; roofs; windows and doors; partitions, ceilings, floors, and stairs; kitchen and baths; electrical/

electronics; heating, air conditioning, and ventilation; plumbing; and site work.

Additional information about the series can be found at http://www.huduser.org/publications/destech/rehabgui.html

and http://www.pathnet.org/sp.asp?id=997. This series is an excellent adjunct to the Healthy Housing Reference Manual.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

Chapter 1: Housing History and Purpose

“Safe, affordable housing is a basic necessity for every family.

code inspectors, housing inspectors, environmental health

Without a decent place to live, people cannot be productive

officers, injury control specialists, and epidemiologists all

members of society, children cannot learn and families

are indispensable to achieving the goal of the best

cannot thrive.”

housing in the world for U.S. citizens. This goal is the

basis for the collaboration of the U.S. Department of

Tracy Kaufman, Research Associate

Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the

National Low Income Housing Coalition/

Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention (CDC).

Low Income Housing Information Service

http://www.habitat.org/how/poverty.html; 2003

Preurban Housing

Early dwelling designs were probably the result of cultural,

Introduction

socioeconomic, and physical forces intrinsic to the

The term “shelter,” which is often used to define housing,

environment of their inhabitants. The housing similarities

has a strong connection to the ultimate purpose of

among civilizations separated by vast distances may have

housing throughout the world. The mental image of a

been a result of a shared heritage, common influences,

shelter is of a safe, secure place that provides both privacy

or chance.

and protection from the elements and the temperature

extremes of the outside world.

Caves were accepted as dwellings, perhaps because they

were ready made and required little or no construction.

This vision of shelter, however, is complex. The

However, in areas with no caves, simple shelters were

earthquake in Bam, Iran, before dawn on December 26,

constructed and adapted to the availability of resources

2003, killed in excess of 30,000 people, most of whom

and the needs of the population. Classification systems

were sleeping in their homes. Although the homes were

have been developed to demonstrate how dwelling types

made of the most simple construction materials, many

evolved in preurban indigenous settings [1].

were well over a thousand years old. Living in a home

where generation after generation had been raised should

Ephemeral Dwellings

provide an enormous sense of security. Nevertheless, the

Ephemeral dwellings, also known as transient dwellings,

world press has repeatedly implied that the construction

were typical of nomadic peoples. The African bushmen

of these homes destined this disaster. The homes in Iran

and Australia’s aborigines are examples of societies whose

were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick and mud.

existence depends on an economy of hunting and food

gathering in its simple form. Habitation of an ephemeral

We should think of our homes as a legacy to future

dwelling is generally a matter of days.

generations and consider the negative environmental

effects of building them to serve only one or two

Episodic Dwellings

generations before razing or reconstructing them. Homes

Episodic housing is exemplified by the Inuit igloo, the

should be built for sustainability and for ease in future

tents of the Tungus of eastern Siberia, and the very

modification. We need to learn the lessons of the

similar tents of the Lapps of northern Europe. These

earthquake in Iran, as well as the 2003 heat wave in

groups are more sophisticated than those living in

France that killed in excess of 15,000 people because of

ephemeral dwellings, tend to be more skilled in hunting

the lack of climate control systems in their homes. We

or fishing, inhabit a dwelling for a period of weeks, and

must use our experience, history, and knowledge of both

have a greater effect on the environment. These groups

engineering and human health needs to construct

also construct communal housing and often practice

housing that meets the need for privacy, comfort,

slash-and-burn cultivation, which is the least productive

recreation, and health maintenance.

use of cropland and has a greater environmental impact

than the hunting and gathering of ephemeral dwellers.

Health, home construction, and home maintenance are

inseparable because of their overlapping goals. Many

Periodic Dwellings

highly trained individuals must work together to achieve

Periodic dwellings are also defined as regular temporary

quality, safe, and healthy housing. Contractors, builders,

dwellings used by nomadic tribal societies living in a

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

1-1

pastoral economy. This type of housing is reflected in the

Urbanization

yurt used by the Mongolian and Kirgizian groups and the

Permanent dwellings went beyond simply providing

Bedouins of North Africa and western Asia. These groups’

shelter and protection and moved to the consideration of

dwellings essentially demonstrate the next step in the

comfort. These structures began to find their way into what is

evolution of housing, which is linked to societal

now known as the urban setting. The earliest available

development. Pastoral nomads are distinguished from

evidence suggests that towns came into existence around

people living in episodic dwellings by their homogenous

4000 BC. Thus began the social and public health problems

cultures and the beginnings of political organization.

that would increase as the population of cities increased

Their environmental impact increases with their increased

in number and in sophistication. In preurban housing,

dependence on agriculture rather than livestock.

the sparse concentration of people allowed for movement

away from human pollution or allowed the dilution of

Seasonal Dwellings

pollution at its location. The movement of populations

Schoenauer [1] describes seasonal dwellings as reflective of

into urban settings placed individuals in close proximity,

societies that are tribal in nature, seminomadic, and based

without the benefit of previous linkages and without the

on agricultural pursuits that are both pastoral and

ability to relocate away from pollution or other people.

marginal. Housing used by seminomads for several

months or for a season can be considered semisedentary

Urbanization was relatively slow to begin, but once

and reflective of the advancement of the concept of

started, it accelerated rapidly. In the 1800s, only about

property, which is lacking in the preceding societies. This

3% of the population of the world could be found in

concept of property is primarily of communal property, as

urban settings in excess of 5,000 people. This was soon to

opposed to individual or personal property. This type of

change. The year 1900 saw the percentage increase to

housing is found in diverse environmental conditions and is

13.6% and subsequently to 29.8% in 1950. The world’s

demonstrated in North America by the hogans and armadas

urban population has grown since that time. By 1975,

of the Navajo Indians. Similar housing can be found in

more than one in three of the world’s population lived in

Tanzania (Barabaig) and in Kenya and Tanzania (Masai).

an urban setting, with almost one out of every two living

in urban areas by 1997. Industrialized countries currently

Semipermanent Dwellings

find approximately 75% of their population in an urban

According to Schoenauer [1], sedentary folk societies or

setting. The United Nations projects that in 2015 the

hoe peasants practicing subsistence agriculture by

world’s urban population will rise to approximately 55%

cultivating staple crops use semipermanent dwellings.

and that in industrialized nations it will rise to just over 80%.

These groups tend to live in their dwellings various amounts

of time, usually years, as defined by their crop yields. When

In the Western world, one of the primary forces driving

land needs to lie fallow, they move to more fertile areas.

urbanization was the Industrial Revolution. The basic

Groups in the Americas that used semipermanent

source of energy in the earliest phase of the Industrial

dwellings included the Mayans with their oval houses and

Revolution was water provided by flowing rivers. Therefore,

the Hopi, Zuni, and Acoma Indians in the southwestern

towns and cities grew next to the great waterways. Factory

United States with their pueblos.

buildings were of wood and stone and matched the houses

in which the workers lived, both in construction and in

Permanent Dwellings

location. Workers’ homes were little different in the urban

The homes of sedentary agricultural societies, whose

setting than the agricultural homes from whence they

political and social organizations are defined as nations

came. However, living close to the workplace was a

and who possess surplus agricultural products, exemplify

definite advantage for the worker of the time. When the

this type of dwelling. Surplus agricultural products

power source for factories changed from water to coal,

allowed the division of labor and the introduction of

steam became the driver and the construction materials

other pursuits aside from food production; however,

became brick and cast iron, which later evolved into

agriculture is still the primary occupation for a significant

steel. Increasing populations in cities and towns increased

portion of the population. Although they occurred at

social problems in overcrowded slums. The lack of

different points in time, examples of early sedentary

inexpensive, rapid public transportation forced many

agricultural housing can be found in English cottages,

workers to live close to their work. These factory areas

such as the Suffolk, Cornwall, and Kent cottages [1].

were not the pastoral areas with which many were

familiar, but were bleak with smoke and other pollutants.

The inhabitants of rural areas migrated to ever-expanding

1-2

Housing History and Purpose

cities looking for work. Between 1861 and 1911 the

population of England grew by 80%. The cities and

towns of England were woefully unprepared to cope with

the resulting environmental problems, such as the lack of

potable water and insufficient sewerage.

In this atmosphere, cholera was rampant; and death rates

resembled those of Third World countries today. Children

had a one in six chance of dying before the age of 1 year.

Because of urban housing problems, social reformers such

as Edwin Chadwick began to appear. Chadwick’s Report

on an Enquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring

Population of Great Britain and on the Means of its

Improvement [2] sought many reforms, some of which

concerned building ventilation and open spaces around

the buildings. However, Chadwick’s primary contention

was that the health of the working classes could be improved

by proper street cleaning, drainage, sewage, ventilation,

and water supplies. In the United States, Shattuck et al.

[3] wrote the Report of the Sanitary Commission of

Massachusetts, which was printed in 1850. In the report,

50 recommendations were made. Among those related to

housing and building issues were recommendations for

protecting school children by ventilation and sanitation of

school buildings, emphasizing town planning and controlling

Figure 1.1. Conditions in the Tenements

overcrowded tenements and cellar dwellings. Figure 1.1

demonstrates the conditions common in the tenements.

1830s as a housing unit of two to five stories, with each

story containing apartments of two to four rooms. It was

In 1845, Dr. John H. Griscom, the City Inspector of

originally built for the upper group of the working class.

New York, published The Sanitary Condition of the

The tenement house emerged in the 1830s when

Laboring Population of New York [4]. His document

landlords converted warehouses into inexpensive housing

expressed once again the argument for housing reform

designed to accommodate Irish and black workers.

and sanitation. Griscom is credited with being the first to

Additionally, existing large homes were subdivided and

use the phrase “how the other half lives.” During this

new structures were added, creating rear houses and, in

time, the poor were not only subjected to the physical

the process, eliminating the traditional gardens and yards

problems of poor housing, but also were victimized by

behind them. These rear houses, although new, were

corrupt landlords and builders.

no healthier than the front house, often housing up to

10 families. When this strategy became inadequate to

Trends in Housing

satisfy demand, the epoch period of the tenements began.

The term “tenement house” was first used in America and

dates from the mid-nineteenth century. It was often

Although unpopular, the tenement house grew in

intertwined with the term “slum.” Wright [5] notes that

numbers, and, by 1850 in New York and Boston, each

in English, tenement meant “an abode for a person or for

tenement housed an average of 65 people. During the

the soul, when someone else owned the property.” Slum,

1850s, the railroad house or railroad tenement was

on the other hand, initially was used at the beginning of

introduced. This structure was a solid, rectangular block

the 19th century as a slang term for a room. By the

with a narrow alley in the back. The structure was

middle of the century, slum had evolved into a term for a

typically 90 feet long and had 12 to 16 rooms, each about

back dwelling occupied by the lowest members of society.

6 feet by 6 feet and holding around four people. The

Von Hoffman [6] states that this term had, by the end of

facility allowed no direct light or air into rooms except

the century, begun to be used interchangeably with

those facing the street or alley. Further complicating this

tenement. The author noted that in the larger cities of

structure was the lack of privacy for the tenants. A lack of

the United States, the apartment house emerged in the

hallways eliminated any semblance of privacy. Open sewers,

a single privy in the back of the building, and uncollected

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

1-3

garbage resulted in an objectionable and unhygienic place to

bungalow was introduced into the United States in 1880

live. Additionally, the wood construction common at the

with the construction of a home in Cape Cod. The bungalow,

time, coupled with coal and wood heating, made fire an

derived for use in tropical climates, was especially popular

ever-present danger. As a result of a series of tenement

in California.

fires in 1860 in New York, such terms as death-trap and

fire-trap were coined to describe the poorly constructed

Company towns were another trend in housing in the

living facilities [6].

19th century. George Pullman, who built railway cars in the

1880s, and John H. Patterson, of the National Cash

The two last decades of the 19th century saw the

introduction and development of dumbbell tenements, a

Wright [5] notes that in 1917 the U.S. Bureau of Labor

front and rear tenement connected by a long hall. These

Standards estimated that at least 1,000 industrial firms were

tenements were typically five stories, with a basement and

providing housing for their employees. The provision of

no elevator (elevators were not required for any building

housing was not necessarily altruistic. The motivation

of less than six stories). Dumbbell tenements, like other

for providing housing varied from company to company.

tenements, resulted in unaesthetic and unhealthy places to

Such motivations included the use of housing as a

live. Garbage was often thrown down the airshafts, natural

recruitment incentive for skilled workers, a method of

light was confined to the first floor hallway, and the public

linking the individual to the company, and a belief that a

hallways only contained one or two toilets and a sink.

better home life would make the employees happier and

This apparent lack of sanitary facilities was compounded

more productive in their jobs. Some companies, such as

by the fact that many families took in boarders to help with

Firestone and Goodyear, went beyond the company town

expenses. In fact, 44,000 families rented space to boarders

and allowed their employees to obtain loans for homes

in New York in 1890, with this increasing to 164,000

from company-established banks. A prime motivator of

families in 1910. In the early 1890s, New York had a

company town planning was sanitation, because

population of more than 1 million, of which 70% were

maintaining the worker’s health could potentially lead to

residents of multifamily dwellings. Of this group, 80%

fewer workdays lost due to illness. Thus, in the

lived in tenements consisting mostly of dumbbell tenements.

development of the town, significant consideration was

given to sanitary issues such as window screens, sewage

The passage of the New York Tenement House Act of

treatment, drainage, and water supplies.

1901 spelled the end of the dumbbells and acceptance of

a new tenement type developed in the 1890s—the park

Before World War I there was a shortage of adequate

or central court tenement, which was distinguished by a

dwellings. Even after World War I, insufficient funding, a

park or open space in the middle of a group of buildings.

shortage of skilled labor, and a dearth of building materials

This design was implemented to reduce the activity on

compounded the problem. However, the design of homes

the front street and to enhance the opportunity for fresh

after the war was driven in part by health considerations,

air and recreation in the courtyard. The design often

such as providing good ventilation, sun orientation and

included roof playgrounds, kindergartens, communal

exposure, potable pressurized water, and at least one

laundries, and stairways on the courtyard side.

private toilet. Schoenauer [1] notes that, during the

postwar years, the improved mobility of the public led to

Although the tenements did not go away, reform groups

an increase in the growth of suburban areas, exemplified

supported ideas such as suburban cottages to be

by the detached and sumptuous communities outside

developed for the working class. These cottages were two-

New York, such as Oyster Bay. In the meantime, the

story brick and timber, with a porch and a gabled roof.

conditions of working populations consisting of many

According to Wright [5], a Brooklyn project called

immigrants began to improve with the improving

Homewood consisted of 53 acres of homes in a planned

economy of the 1920s. The garden apartment became

neighborhood from which multifamily dwellings, saloons,

popular. These units were well lighted and ventilated and

and factories were banned.

had a courtyard, which was open to all and well maintained.

Although there were many large homes for the well-to-do,

Immediately after World War I and during the 1920s, city

single homes for the not-so-wealthy were not abundant.

population growth was outpaced by population growth in

The first small house designed for the individual of

the suburbs by a factor of two. The focus at the time was

modest means was the bungalow. According to

on the single-family suburban dwelling. The 1920s were a

Schoenauer [1], bungalows originated in India. The

time of growth, but the decade following the Great

1-4

Housing History and Purpose

History of the Department of Housing and Urban Development

1934

Housing Act establishes Federal Housing Administration to insure mortgages and make loans to

low-income families; Fannie Mae created.

1937

Housing Act establishes public housing.

1944

Serviceman’s Readjustment Act creates Veteran Administration mortgages; trend toward

suburbia begins.

Late 1950s

Urban renewal begins; slum clearance developed to promote construction of affordable housing.

1965

Department of Housing and Urban Development created.

1968

Model Cities program launched; fair housing launched through the Civil Rights Act.

1971

Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act passed.

1974

Section 8 rental subsidy program begins; Community Development Block Grant program begins.

1977

Urban Development Action Grants begin.

1986

Low-income housing tax credit created.

1987

McKinney Homeless Assistance Act passed; creation of low-income housing tax credit.

1991-1994

Public housing inspection for lead paint.

1992

Residential Lead Hazard Reduction Act passed (Title X of the 1992 Housing and Community

Development Act).

1993

Hope VI program begins to redevelop old public housing.

1996

Lead-based paint disclosure becomes law.

1999

HUD and CDC launch the Healthy Homes Initiative.

2000

HUD publishes new lead paint regulations for federally funded assisted housing; President’s Task

Force releases federal interagency plan to eliminate childhood lead paint poisoning by 2010.

2001

EPA publishes final standards for lead in paint, dust, and soil in housing.

Depression, beginning in 1929, was one of deflation,

and loan associations, and others to make loans for

cessation of building, loss of mortgage financing, and the

building homes, small business establishments, and farm

plunge into unemployment of large numbers of building

buildings. If the Federal Housing Administration

trade workers. Additionally, 1.5 million home loans were

approved the plans, it would insure the loan. In 1937,

foreclosed during this period. In 1936, the housing market

Congress passed another National Housing Act that

began to make a comeback; however, the 1930s would

enabled the Federal Housing Administration to take

come to be known as the beginning of public housing,

control of slum clearance. It made 60-year loans at low

with increased public involvement in housing

interest to local governments to help them build

construction, as demonstrated by the many laws passed

apartment blocks. Rents in these homes were fixed and

during the era [5]. The National Housing Act was

were only available to low-income families. By 1941, the

passed by Congress in 1934 and set up the Federal Housing

agency had assisted in the construction of more than

Administration. This agency encouraged banks, building

120,000 family units.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

1-5

During World War II, the focus of home building was on

Builders also began promoting one-floor minihomes and

housing for workers who were involved in the war effort.

no-frills homes of approximately 900 to 1,200 square feet.

Homes were being built through federal agencies such as

Manufactured housing began to increase in popularity,

the newly formed Federal Housing Administration, formed

with mobile home manufacturers becoming some of the

in 1934 and transferred to HUD in 1965. According to

most profitable corporations in the United States in the

the U.S. Census Bureau (USCB) [7], in the years since

early 1970s. In the 1940 census, manufactured housing

World War II, the types of homes Americans live in have

were lumped into the “other” category with boats and tourist

changed dramatically. In 1940, most homes were considered

cabins: by the 1990 census, manufactured housing made up

attached houses (row houses, townhouses, and duplexes).

7% of the total housing inventory. Many communities

Small apartment houses with two to four apartments had

ban manufactured housing from residential

their zenith in the 1950s. In the 1960 census, two-thirds

neighborhoods.

of the housing inventory was made up of one-family detached

houses, which declined to less than 60% in the 1990 census.

According to Hart et al. [9], nearly 30% of all home sales

nationwide are of manufactured housing, and more than

The postwar years saw the expansion of suburban housing

90% of those homes are never moved once they are

led by William J. Levitt’s Levittown, on Long Island,

anchored. According to a 2001 industry report, the

which had a strong influence on postwar building and

demand for prefabricated housing is expected to increase

initiated the subdivisions and tract houses of the

in excess of 3% annually to $20 billion in 2005, with

following decades (Figure 1.2). The 1950s and 1960s saw

most units being manufactured homes. The largest

continued suburban development, with the growing ease of

market is expected to continue in the southern part of the

transportation marked by the expansion of the interstate

United States, with the most rapid growth occurring in

highway system. As the cost of housing began to increase

the western part of the country. As of 2000, five

as a result of increased demand, a grassroots movement to

manufactured-home producers, representing 35% of the

provide adequate housing for the poor began to emerge.

market, dominated the industry. This industry, over the

According to Wright [5], in the 1970s only about 25% of the

past 20 to 25 years, has been affected by two pieces of

population could afford a $35,000 home. According to

federal legislation. The first, the Mobile Home

Gaillard [8], Koinonia Partners, a religious organization

Construction and Safety Standards Act, adopted by HUD

founded in 1942 by Clarence Jordan near Albany,

in 1974, was passed to aid consumers through regulation

Georgia, was the seed for Habitat for Humanity. Habitat

and enforcement of HUD design and construction

for Humanity, founded in 1976 by Millard Fuller, is

standards for manufactured homes. The second, the 1980

known for its international efforts and has constructed

Housing Act, required the federal government to change

more than 150,000 houses in 80 countries; 50,000 of these

the term “mobile home” to “manufactured housing” in all

houses are in the United States. The homes are energy-

federal laws and literature. One of the prime reasons for

efficient and environmentally friendly to conserve resources

this change was that these homes were in reality no longer

and reduce long-term costs to the homeowners.

mobile in the true sense.

The energy crisis in the United States between 1973 and

1974 had a major effect on the way Americans lived,

drove, and built their homes. The high cost of both

heating and cooling homes required action, and some of

the action taken was ill advised or failed to consider

healthy housin concerns. Sealing homes and using untried

insulation materials and other energy conservation actions

often resulted in major and sometimes dangerous

buildups of indoor air pollutants. These buildups of

toxins occurred both in homes and offices. Sealing

buildings for energy efficiency and using off-gassing

building materials containing urea-formaldehyde, vinyl,

and other new plastic surfaces, new glues, and even

wallpapers created toxic environments. These newly sealed

environments were not refreshed with makeup air and

Figure 1.2. Levittown, New York

resulted in the accumulation of both chemical and

1-6

Housing History and Purpose

biologic pollutants and moisture leading to mold growth,

Hale EE. Workingmen’s homes, essays and stories, on the

representing new threats to both short-term and long-

homes of men who work in large towns. Boston: James

term health. The results of these actions are still being

R. Osgood and Company; 1874.

dealt with today.

History of plumbing in America. Plumbing and

References

Mechanical Magazine. 1987 Jul. Available from URL:

Schoenauer N. 6,000 years of housing. New York/

http://www.plumbingsupply.com/pmamerica.html.

London: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.; 2000.

Housing Act of 1949, The US Committee on

Chadwick E. Report on an enquiry into the

Agriculture Glossary.

sanitary condition of the labouring population of

Great Britain and on the means of its

Lang RE, Sohmer RR. Editors’ introduction, legacy of

improvements. London: Clowes and Sons; 1842.

the Housing Act of 1949: the past, present, and future of

federal housing and urban policy. Housing Policy Debate

Shattuck L, Banks N Jr, Abbot J. Report of the

2000; 11(2) 291-8. Available from URL:

Sanitary Commission of Massachusetts, 1850.

http://www.fanniemaefoundation.org/ programs/hpd/v11i2-

Boston: Dutton and Wentworth; 1850. Available

edintro.shtml.

from URL: http://www.deltaomega.org/shattuck.pdf.

Mason JB. History of housing in the US. 1930-1980.

Griscom JH. The sanitary condition of the

Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company; 1982.

labouring population of New York. New York:

Harper; 1845.

Passic F. Urban renewal. Morning Star [Albion,

Michigan]. 1997 Feb 13; 6. Available from URL:

Wright G. Building the dream—a social history

http://www.albionmich.com/ history/

of housing in America. Cambridge, MA/London:

histor_notebook/940213.shtml.

The MIT Press; 1998.

Red-lining [definition of], 535A.1 Definitions, Iowa

Von Hoffman A. The origins of American

Code 2001: Section 535A.1. Des Moines, IA: The Iowa

housing reform. Cambridge, MA: Joint Center

Legislature. Available from URL:

for Housing Studies—Harvard University; August

http://www.legis.state.ia.us/IACODE/

1998. p. W98-2.

2001/535A/1.html.

US Census Bureau. Historical census of housing

Rental Housing On Line. Federal housing acts. Port

tables—units in structure; 2002. Washington, DC:

Huron, MI: Rental Housing On Line; no date. Available

US Census Bureau; 2002. Available from URL:

from URL: http://www.rhol.org/rental/fedact.htm.

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/census/

historic/units.html.

Rental Housing On Line. Government’s role in low

income housing. Port Huron, MI: Rental Housing

Gaillard F. If I were a carpenter, twenty years of

On Line; no date. Available from URL:

Habitat for Humanity. Winston-Salem, NC:

http://www.rhol.org/rental/housing.htm.

John E. Blair; 1996.

Texas Low Income Housing Information Service. The

Hart JF, Rhodes MJ, Morgan JT, Lindberg MB.

past: special interests, race, and local control; Housing

The unknown world of the mobile home.

Act of 1949: bipartisan support for public housing.

Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University

Austin, TX: Texas Low Income Housing Information

Press; 2002.

Service; no date. Available from URL:

http://www.texashousing.org/txlihis/ phdebate/past12.html.

Additional Sources of Information

Dolkart A. The 1901 Tenement House Act: chapter 6,

US Department of Housing and Urban Development.

cleaning up the toilets. New York: Lower East Side

Fair housing laws and presidential Executive Orders.

Tenement Museum; no date. Available from URL:

Washington, DC: US Department of Housing and

http://www.tenement.org/ features_dolkart7.html.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

1-7

Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

“The connection between health and dwelling is one of the

6. direct sunlight,

most important that exists.”

7. adequate artificial illumination and avoidance of glare,

Florence Nightingale

8. protection from excessive noise, and

Introduction

It seems obvious that health is related to where people

9. adequate space for exercise and for children to play.

live. People spend 50% or more of every day inside their

homes. Consequently, it makes sense that the housing

The first three physiologic needs reflect the requirement

environment constitutes one of the major influences on

for adequate protection from the elements. The lack of

health and well-being. Many of the basic principles of the

adequate heating and cooling systems in homes can

link between housing and health were elucidated more

contribute to respiratory illnesses or even lead to death

than 60 years ago by the American Public Health

from extreme temperatures. According to the National

Association (APHA) Committee on the Hygiene of

Weather Service, 98 people died from extreme

Housing. After World War II, political scientists,

temperatures in 1996; 62 of these were due to extreme

sociologists, and others became interested in the relation

cold. Hypothermia occurs when the body temperature

between housing and health, mostly as an outgrowth of a

drops below 96°F (46°C). It can occur in any person

concern over poor housing conditions resulting from the

exposed to severe cold without enough protection. Older

massive influx into American cities of veterans looking

people are particularly susceptible because they may not

for jobs. Now, at the beginning of the 21st century, there is

notice the cold as easily and can develop hypothermia

a growing awareness that health is linked not only to the

even after exposure to mild cold. Susceptibility to the

physical structure of a housing unit, but also to the

cold can be exacerbated by certain medications, medical

neighborhood and community in which the house is located.

conditions, or the consumption of alcohol. Hyperthermia is

the name given to a variety of heat-related illnesses. The two

According to Ehlers and Steel [1], in 1938, a Committee

most common forms of hyperthermia are heat

on the Hygiene of Housing, appointed by APHA,

exhaustion and heat stroke. Of the two, heat stroke is

created the Basic Principles of Healthful Housing, which

especially dangerous and requires immediate medical attention.

provided guidance regarding the fundamental needs of

humans as they relate to housing. These fundamental

According to the National Institute on Aging (NIA) [2],

needs include physiologic and psychologic needs,

lifestyle factors can increase the risk for hyperthermia:

protection against disease, protection against injury,

protection against fire and electrical shock, and

Unbearably hot living quarters. This would include

protection against toxic and explosive gases.

people who live in homes without fans or air

conditioners. To help avert the problem, residents should

Fundamental Physiologic Needs

open windows at night; create cross-ventilation by opening

Housing should provide for the following physiologic needs:

windows on two sides of the building; cover windows

when they are exposed to direct sunlight and keep curtains,

1. protection from the elements,

shades, or blinds drawn during the hottest part of the day.

2. a thermal environment that will avoid undue heat loss,

Lack of transportation. People without fans or air conditioners

often are unable to go to shopping malls, movie theaters, and

3. a thermal environment that will permit adequate

libraries to cool off because of illness or the lack of

heat loss from the body,

transportation.

4. an atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity,

Inadequate or inoperable windows. Society has become

so reliant on climate control systems that when they fail,

5. adequate daylight illumination and avoidance

windows cannot be opened. As was the case in the 2003

of undue daylight glare,

heat wave in France, many homes worldwide do not even

have fans for cooling.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

2-1

Overdressing. Older people, because they may not feel

formed a Noise Abatement Commission that was charged

the heat, may not dress appropriately in hot weather.

with evaluating noise issues and suggesting solutions. At

that time, it was concluded that loud noise affected health

Visiting overcrowded places. Trips should be scheduled

and productivity. In 1930, this same commission

during nonrush-hour times and participation in special events

determined that constant exposure to loud noises could

should be carefully planned to avoid disease transmission.

affect worker efficiency and long-term hearing levels. In

1974, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Not checking weather conditions. Older people,

produced a document titled Information on Levels of

particularly those at special risk, should stay indoors on

Environmental Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and

especially hot and humid days, particularly when an air

Welfare With an Adequate Margin of Safety [5]. This

pollution alert is in effect.

document identified maximum levels of 55 decibels outdoors

and 45 decibels indoors to prevent interference with

USCB [3] reported that about 75% of homes in the

activities and 70 decibels for all areas to prevent hearing

United States used either utility gas or electricity for

loss. In 1990, the United Kingdom implemented The

heating purposes, with utility gas accounting for about

Household Appliances (Noise Emission) Regulations [6]

50%. This, of course, varies with the region of the

to help control indoor noise from modern appliances.

country, depending on the availability of hydroelectric

Noise has physiologic impacts aside from the potential to

power. This compares with the 1940 census, which found

reduce hearing ability. According to the American Speech-

that three-quarters of all households heated with coal or

Language-Hearing Association [7], these effects include

wood. Electric heat was so rare that it was not even an

elevated blood pressure; negative cardiovascular effects;

option on the census form of 1940. Today, coal has

increased breathing rates, digestion, and stomach

virtually disappeared as a household fuel. Wood all but

disturbances; ulcers; negative effects on developing

disappeared as a heating fuel in 1970, but made a modest

fetuses; difficulty sleeping after the noise stops; plus the

comeback at 4% nationally by 1990. This move over time

intensification of the effects of drugs, alcohol, aging, and

to more flexible fuels allows a majority of today’s homes

carbon monoxide. In addition, noise can reduce attention

to maintain healthy temperatures, although many houses

to tasks and impede speech communication. Finally, noise

still lack adequate insulation.

can hamper performance of daily tasks, increase fatigue,

and cause irritability.

The fifth through the seventh physiologic concerns

address adequate illumination, both natural and artificial.

Household noise can be controlled in various ways.

Research has revealed a strong relationship between light

Approaching the problem during initial construction is

and human physiology. The effects of light on both the

the simplest, but has not become popular. For example, in

human eye and human skin are notable. According to

early 2003, only about 30% of homebuilders offered

Zilber [4], one of the physiologic responses of the skin to

sound-attenuating blankets for interior walls. A sound-

sunlight is the production of vitamin D. Light allows us

attenuating blanket is a lining of noise abatement

to see. It also affects body rhythms and psychologic

products (the thickness depends on the material being used).

health. Average individuals are affected daily by both

Spray-in-place soft foam insulation can also be used as a

natural and artificial lighting levels in their homes.

sound dampener, as can special walking mats for floors.

Adequate lighting is important in allowing people to see

Actions that can help reduce household noise include

unsanitary conditions and to prevent injury, thus

installing new, quieter appliances and isolating washing

contributing to a healthier and safer environment.

machines to reduce noise and water passing through pipes.

Improper indoor lighting can also contribute to eyestrain

from inadequate illumination, glare, and flicker.

The ninth and final physiologic need is for adequate

space for exercise and play. Before industrialization in the

Avoiding excessive noise (eighth physiologic concern) is

United States and England, a preponderance of the

important in the 21st century. However, the concept of

population lived and worked in more rural areas with

noise pollution is not new. Two thousand years ago, Julius

very adequate areas for exercise and play. As

Caesar banned chariots from traveling the streets of Rome

industrialization impacted demographics, more people

late at night. In the 19th century, numerous towns and

were in cities without ample space for play and exercise.

cities prohibited ringing church bells. In the early 20th

In the 19th century, society responded with the

century, London prohibited church bells from ringing

development of playgrounds and public parks. Healthful

between 9:00 PM and 9:00 AM. In 1929, New York City

housing should include the provision of safe play and

2-2

Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

exercise areas. Many American neighborhoods are severely

Protection Against Disease

deficient, with no area for children to safely play. New

Eight ways to protect against contaminants include the

residential areas often do not have sidewalks or street

following:

lighting, nor are essential services available by foot

because of highway and road configurations.

1. provide a safe and sanitary water supply;

Fundamental Psychologic Needs

2. protect the water supply system against pollution;

Seven fundamental psychologic needs for healthy housing

include the following:

3. provide toilet facilities that minimize the danger

of transmitting disease;

1. adequate privacy for the individual,

4. protect against sewage contamination of the interior

2. opportunities for normal family life,

surfaces of the dwelling;

3. opportunities for normal community life,

5. avoid unsanitary conditions near the dwelling;

4. facilities that make possible the performance of

6. exclude vermin from the dwelling, which may

household tasks without undue physical and

play a part in transmitting disease;

mental fatigue,

7. provide facilities for keeping milk and food

5. facilities for maintenance of cleanliness of the

fresh; and

dwelling and of the person,

8. allow sufficient space in sleeping rooms to

6. possibilities for aesthetic satisfaction in the home

minimize the danger of contact infection.

and its surroundings, and

According to the U.S. EPA [8], there are approximately

7. concordance with prevailing social standards of

160,000 public or community drinking water systems in the

the local community.

United States. The current estimate is that 42 million

Americans (mostly in rural America) get their water from

Privacy is a necessity to most people, to some degree and

private wells or other small, unregulated water systems.

during some periods. The increase in house size and the

The presence of adequate water, sewer, and plumbing

diminishing family size have, in many instances, increased

facilities is central to the prevention, reduction, and possible

the availability of privacy. Ideally, everyone would have

elimination of water-related diseases. According to the

their own rooms, or, if that were not possible, would

Population Information Program [9], water-related diseases

share a bedroom with only one person of the same sex,

can be organized into four categories:

excepting married couples and small children. Psychiatrists

consider it important for children older than 2 years to

• waterborne diseases, including those caused by

have bedrooms separate from their parents. In addition,

both fecal-oral organisms and those caused by toxic

bedrooms and bathrooms should be accessible directly

substances;

from halls or living rooms and not through other bedrooms.

In addition to the psychologic value of privacy, repeated

• water-based diseases;

studies have shown that lack of space and quiet due to

crowding can lead to poor school performance in children.

• water-related vector diseases; and

Coupled with a natural desire for privacy is the social

• water-scarce diseases.

desire for normal family and community life. A wholesome

atmosphere requires adequate living room space and

Numerous studies link improvements in sanitation and the

adequate space for withdrawal elsewhere during periods of

provision of potable water with significant reductions in

entertainment. This accessibility expands beyond the walls

morbidity and mortality from water-related diseases.

of the home and includes easy communication with centers

Clean water and sanitation facilities have proven to

of culture and business, such as schools, churches,

reduce infant and child mortality by as much as 55%

entertainment, shopping, libraries, and medical services.

in Third World countries according to studies from the

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

2-3

1980s. Waterborne diseases are often referred to as “dirty-

Of the 13 million housing units at the time without flush

water” diseases and are the result of contamination from

toilets, 11.8 million (90.7%) had an outside toilet or

chemical, human, and animal wastes. Specific diseases

privy, another 1 million (7.6%) had no toilet or privy,

in this group include cholera, typhoid, shigella, polio,

and the remainder had a nonflush toilet in the structure.

meningitis, and hepatitis A and E. Water-based diseases

are caused by aquatic organisms that spend part of their

In contrast to these figures, the 2000 census data demonstrate

life cycle in the water and another part as parasites of

the great progress that has been made in providing sanitary

animals. Although rare in the United States, these

sewer facilities. Nationally, 74.8% of homes are served by

diseases include dracunculiasis, paragonimiasis,

a public sewer, with 24.1% served by a septic tank or cesspool,

clonorchiasis, and schistosomiasis. The reduction in these

and the remaining 1.1% using other means.

diseases in many countries has not only led to decreased rates

of illness and death, but has also increased productivity

Vermin, such as rodents, have long been linked to

through a reduction in days lost from work.

property destruction and disease. Integrated pest

management, along with proper housing construction, has

Water-related diseases are linked to vectors that breed and

played a significant role in reducing vermin around the

live in or near polluted and unpolluted water. These vectors are

modern home. Proper food storage, rat-proofing

primarily mosquitoes that infect people with the disease

construction, and ensuring good sanitation outside the

agents for malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, and

home have served to eliminate or reduce rodent problems

filariasis. While the control of vectorborne diseases is a

in the 21st century home.

complex matter, in the United States, most of the control

focus has been on controlling habitat and breeding areas

Facilities to properly store milk and food have not only been

for the vectors and reducing and controlling human cases

instrumental in reducing the incidence of some foodborne

of the disease that can serve as hosts for the vector.

diseases, but have also significantly changed the diet in

Vectorborne diseases have recently become a more of a

developed countries. Refrigeration can be traced to the

concern to the United States with the importation of the

ancient Chinese, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. In the

West Nile virus. The transmission of West Nile virus

last 150 years, great strides have been made in using

occurs when a mosquito vector takes a blood meal from a bird

refrigeration to preserve and cool food. Vapor compression

or incidental hosts, such as a dog, cat, horse, or other

using air and, subsequently, ammonia as a coolant was

vertebrate. The human cases of West Nile virus in

first developed in the 1850s. In the early 1800s, natural

2003 numbered 9,862, with 264 deaths. Finally,

ice was extracted for use as a coolant and preserver of

water-scarce diseases are diseases that flourish where

food. By the late 1870s, there were 35 commercial ice

sanitation is poor due to a scarcity of fresh water. Diseases

plants in the United States and, by 1909, there were 2,000.

included in this category are diphtheria, leprosy, whooping

However, as early as the 1890s, sources of natural ice

cough, tetanus, tuberculosis, and trachoma. These

began to be a problem as a result of pollution and sewage

diseases are often transmitted when the supply of fresh

dumped into bodies of water. Thus, the use of natural ice as

water is inadequate for hand washing and basic hygiene.

a refrigerant began to present a health problem. Mechanical

These conditions are still rampant in much of the world,

manufacture of ice provided a temporary solution, which

but are essentially absent from the United States due to

eventually resulted in providing mechanical refrigeration.

the extensive availability of potable drinking water.

Refrigeration was first used by the brewing and meat-packing

In 2000, USCB [10] reported that 1.4% of U.S. homes

industries; but most households had iceboxes (Figure 2.1),

lacked plumbing facilities. This differs greatly from the

which made the ice wagon a popular icon of the late

1940 census, when nearly one-half of U.S. homes lacked

1800s and early 1900s. In 1915, the first refrigerator, the

complete plumbing. The proportion has continually

Guardian, was introduced. This unit was the predecessor of

dropped, falling to about one-third in 1950 and then to

the Frigidaire. The refrigerator became as necessary to the

one-sixth in 1960. Complete plumbing facilities are

household as a stove or sewing machine. By 1937, nearly

defined as hot and cold piped water, a bathtub or shower,

6 million refrigerators were manufactured in the United

and a flush toilet. The containment of household sewage

States. By 1950, in excess of 80% of American farms and

is instrumental in protecting the public from waterborne

more than 90% of urban homes had a refrigerator.

and vectorborne diseases. The 1940 census revealed that

more than a third of U.S. homes had no flush toilet, with

Adequate living and sleeping space are also important in

70% of the homes in some states without a flush toilet.

protecting against contagion. It is an issue not only of

2-4

Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

to the International Code Council one- and two-family

dwelling code, the purpose of building codes is to provide

minimum standards for the protection of life, limb,

property, environment, and for the safety and welfare of

the consumer, general public, and the owners and

occupants of residential buildings regulated by this

code [12].

However, as with all types of codes, the development of

innovative processes and products must be allowed to take

a place in improving construction technology. Thus,

according to the International Code Council one- and

two-family dwelling code, building codes are not

intended to limit the appropriate use of materials,

appliances, equipment, or methods by design or

construction that are not specifically prescribed by the

code if the building official determines that the proposed

alternate materials, appliances, equipment or methods of

design or construction are at least equivalent of that

prescribed in this code. While the details of what a code

should include are beyond the scope of this section,

additional information can be found at

Figure 2.1. Circa 1890 Icebox

Source: Robert R. McCormick Museum, Wheaton, Illinois

http://www.iccsafe.org/, the Web site of the International

Code Council (ICC). ICC is an organization formed by

privacy but of adequate room to reduce the potential for the

the consolidation of the Building Officials and Code

transmission of contagion. Much improvement has been

Administrators International, Southern Building Code

made in the adequacy of living space for the U.S. family

Congress International, Inc., and the International

over the last 30 years. According to USCB [11], the

Conference of Building Officials [12].

average size of new single homes has increased from a

1970 average of 1,500 square feet to a 2000 average of

According to the Home Safety Council (HSC) [13], the

2,266 square feet. USCB [11] says that slightly less than

leading causes of home injury deaths in 1998 were falls

5% of U.S. homes were considered crowded in 1990; that

and poisonings, which accounted for 6,756 and

is, they had more than one person per room. However,

5,758 deaths, respectively. As expected, the rates and

this is an increase since the 1980 census, when the figure

national estimates of the number of fall deaths were

was 4.5%. This is the only time there has been an

highest among those older than 64 years, and stairs or steps

increase since the first housing census was initiated in

were associated with 17% of fall deaths. Overall, falls were

1940, when one in five homes was crowded. During the

the leading cause of nonfatal, unintentional injuries

1940 census, most crowded homes were found in

occurring at home and accounted for 5.6 million injuries.

southern states, primarily in the rural south. Crowding

Similar to the mortality statistics, consumer products most

has become common in a few large urban areas, with

often associated with emergency department visits included

more than one-fourth of all crowded units located in four

stairs and steps, accounting for 854,631 visits, and floors,

metropolitan areas: Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, and

accounting for 556,800 visits. A national survey by HSC

New York. The rate for California has not changed

found that one-third of all households with stairs did not

significantly between 1940 (13%) and 1990 (12%).

have banisters or handrails on at least one set of stairs.

Excessive crowding in homes has the potential to increase

Related to this, homes with older persons were more

not only communicable disease transmission, but also the

likely to have banisters or handrails than were those where

stress level of occupants because modern urban

young children live or visit. The survey also revealed that

individuals spend considerably more time indoors than

48% of households have windows on the second floor or

did their 1940s counterparts.

above, but only 25% have window locks or bars to

prevent children from falling out. Bathtub mats or

Protection Against Injury

nonskid strips to reduce bathtub falls were used in 63%

A major provision for safe housing construction is

of American households. However, in senior households

developing and implementing building codes. According

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

2-5

(age 70 years and older), 79% used mats or nonskid strips.

•

using a metal mesh screen with fireplaces and

Nineteen percent of the total number of homes surveyed

leaving glass doors open while burning a fire;

had grab bars to supplement the mats and strips. Significantly,

only 39% of the group most susceptible to falls (people aged

•

installing stovepipe thermometers to monitor flue

70 years and older) used both nonskid surfaces and grab bars.

temperatures;

Protection Against Fire

•

leaving air inlets on wood stoves open and never

An important component of safe housing is to control

restricting air supply to the fireplaces, thus

conditions that promote the initiation and spread of fire.

helping to reduce creosote buildup;

Between 1992 and 2001, an average of 4,266 Americans

died annually in fires and nearly 25,000 were injured.

•

using fire-resistant materials on walls around

This fact and the following information from the United

wood stoves;

States Fire Administration (USFA) [14] demonstrate the

impact that fire safety and the lack of it have in the United

•

never using flammable liquids to start a fire;

States. The United States has one of the highest fire death

rates in the industrialized world, with 13.4 deaths per

•

using only seasoned hardwood rather than soft,

million people. At least 80% of all fire deaths occur in

moist wood, which accelerates creosote buildup;

residences. Residential fires account for 23% of all fires

and 76% of structure fires. In one- and two-family

•

building small fires that burn completely and

dwellings, fires start in the kitchen 25.5% of the time and

produce less smoke;

originate in the bedroom 13.7% of the time. Apartment

fires most often start in the kitchen, but at almost twice

•

never burning trash, debris, or pasteboard in a

the rate (48.5%), with bedrooms again being the second

fireplace;

most common place at 13.4%.

•

placing logs in the rear of the fireplace on an adequate

These USFA statistics also disclose that cooking is the

supporting grate;

leading cause of home fires, usually a result of unattended

cooking and human error rather than mechanical failure

•

never leaving a fire in the fireplace unattended;

of the cooking units. The leading cause of fire deaths in

homes is careless smoking, which can be significantly

•

keeping the roof clear of leaves, pine needles,

deterred by smoke alarms and smolder-resistant bedding

and other debris;

and upholstered furniture. Heating system fires tend to be

a larger problem in single-family homes than in

•

covering the chimney with a mesh screen spark

apartments because the heating systems in family homes

arrester;and

frequently are not professionally maintained.

•

removing branches hanging above the chimney,

A number of conditions in the household can contribute

flues, or vents.

to the creation or spread of fire. The USFA data indicate

that more than one-third of rural Americans use fireplaces,

USFA [14] also notes that manufactured homes can be

wood stoves, and other fuel-fired appliances as primary sources

susceptible to fires. More than one-fifth of residential fires

of heat. These same systems account for 36% of rural

in these facilities are related to the use of supplemental

residential fires. Many of these fires are the result of

room heaters, such as wood- and coal-burning stoves,

creosote buildup in chimneys and stovepipes. These fires

kerosene heaters, gas space-heaters, and electrical heaters.

could be avoided by

Most fires related to supplemental heating equipment result

from improper installation, maintenance, or use of the

• inspecting and cleaning by a certified chimney

appliance. USFA recommendations to reduce the chance

specialist;

of fire with these types of appliances include the following:

• clearing the area around the hearth of debris,

• placing wood stoves on noncombustible surfaces

decorations, and flammable materials;

or a code-specified or listed floor surface;

2-6

Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

• placing noncombustible materials around the

alarm is then triggered by the drop in current between the

opening and hearth of fireplaces;

plates [16].

• placing space heaters on firm, out-of-the-way

Photoelectric devices function in one of two ways. First, smoke

surfaces to reduce tipping over and subsequent

blocks a light beam, reducing the light reaching the photocell,

spillage of fuel and providing at least 3 feet of air

which sets off the alarm. In the second and more

space between the heating device and walls, chairs,

common type of photoelectric unit, smoke particles

firewood, and curtains;

scatter the light onto a photocell, initiating an alarm. Both

detector types are effective smoke sensors and both must

• placing vents and chimneys to allow 18 inches of air

pass the same test to be certified as Underwriters Laboratories

space between single-wall connector pipes and

(UL) smoke detectors. Ionization detectors respond more

combustibles and 2 inches between insulated

quickly to flaming fires with smaller combustion particles,

chimneys and combustibles; and

while photoelectric detectors respond more quickly to

smoldering fires. Detectors can be damaged by steam or high

• using only the fuel designated by the

temperatures. Photoelectric detectors are more expensive

manufacturer for the appliance.

than ionization detectors and are more sensitive to minute

smoke particles. However, ionization detectors have a

The ability to escape from a building when fire has been

degree of built-in security not inherent to photoelectric

discovered or detected is of extreme importance. In the

detectors. When the battery starts to fail in an ionization

modern home, three key elements can contribute to a safe

detector, the ion current falls and the alarm sounds,

exit from a home during the threat of fire. The first of

warning that it is time to change the battery before the

these is a working smoke alarm system. The average

detector becomes ineffective. Backup batteries may be used

homeowner in the 1960s had never heard of a smoke

for photoelectric detectors that are operated using the

alarm, but by the mid-1980s, laws in 38 states and in

home’s electrical system.

thousands of municipalities required smoke alarms in all

new and existing residences. By 1995, 93% of all single-

According to USFA [14], a properly functioning smoke

family and multifamily homes, apartments, nursing

alarm diminishes the risk for dying in a fire by

homes, and dormitories were equipped with alarms. The

approximately 50% and is considered the single most

cost decreased from $1,000 for a professionally installed unit

important means of preventing house and apartment fire

for a three-bedroom home in the 1970s to an owner-

fatalities. Proper installation and maintenance, however,

installed $10 unit. According to the EPA [15],

are key to their usefulness. Figure 2.2 shows a typical smoke

ionization chamber and photoelectric are the two most

alarm being tested.

common smoke detectors available commercially.

Helmenstein [16] states that a smoke alarm uses one or

Following are key issues regarding installation and

both methods, and occasionally uses a heat detector, to

maintenance of smoke alarms. (Smoke alarms should be

warn of a fire. These units can be powered by a 9-volt battery,

installed on every level of the home including the

a lithium battery, or 120-volt house wiring. Ionization

basement, both inside and outside the sleeping area.)

detectors function using an ionization chamber and a minute

source of ionizing radiation. The radiation source is

• Smoke alarms should be installed on the ceiling or

americium-241 (perhaps 1/5,000th of a gram), while the

6-8 inches below the ceiling on side walls.

ionization chamber consists of two plates separated by about a

centimeter. The power source (battery or house current)

• Battery replacement is imperative to ensuring proper

applies voltage to the plates, resulting in one plate being

operation. Typically, batteries should be replaced at

charged positively while the other plate is charged negatively.

least once a year, although some units are

The americium constantly releases alpha particles that knock

manufactured with a 10-year battery. A “chirping”

electrons off the atoms in the air, ionizing the oxygen and

noise from the unit indicates the need for battery

nitrogen atoms in the chamber. The negative plate attracts

replacement. A battery-operated smoke alarm has a

the positively charged oxygen and nitrogen atoms, while the

life expectancy of 8 to 10 years.

electrons are attracted to the positive plate, generating a

small, continuous electric current. If smoke enters the

• Battery replacement is not necessary in units that

ionization chamber, the smoke particles attach to the ions

are connected to the household electrical system.

and neutralize them, so they do not reach the plate. The

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

2-7

the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) [17],

electrical distribution equipment was the third-leading

cause of home fires and the second-leading cause of fire

deaths in the United States between 1994 and 1998.

Specifically, NFPA reported that 38,300 home electrical

fires occurred in 1998, which resulted in 284 deaths,

1,184 injuries, and approximately $670 million in direct

property damage. The same report indicated that the

leading cause of electrical distribution fires was ground

fault or short-circuit problems. A third of the home

electrical distribution fires were a result of problems with

fixed wiring, while cords and plugs were responsible for

17% of these fires and 28% of the deaths.

Additional investigation of these statistics reveals that

electrical fires are one of the leading types of home fires in

Figure 2.2. Smoke Alarm Testing

Source: Federal Emergency Management Agency

manufactured homes. USFA [14] data demonstrate that

many electrical fires in homes are associated with

• Regardless of the type, it is crucial to test every smoke

improper installation of electrical devices by do-it-

alarm monthly. Data from HSC [13] revealed that

yourselfers. Errors attributed to this amateur electrical

only 83% of individuals with fire alarms test them

work include use of improperly rated devices such as

at least once a year; while only 19% of households

switches or receptacles and loose connections leading to

with at least one smoke alarm test them quarterly.

overheating and arcing, resulting in fires. Recommendations

to reduce the risk of electrical fires and electrocution

A second element impacting escape from a building is a

include the following:

properly installed fire-suppression system. According to USFA

[14], sprinkler systems began to be used over 100 years ago in

Use only the correct fuse size and do not use

New England textile mills. Currently, few homes are protected

pennies behind a fuse.

by residential sprinkler systems. However, UL-listed home

systems are available and are designed to protect homes much

Install ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI) on

faster than standard commercial or industrial sprinklers. Based

all outlets in kitchens, bathrooms, and anywhere

on approximately 1% of the total building price in new

else near water. This can also be accomplished by

construction, sprinkler systems can be installed for a

installing a GFCI in the breaker box, thus

reasonable price. These systems can be retrofitted to

protecting an entire circuit.

existing construction and are smaller than commercial

systems. In addition, homeowner insurance discounts for

Never place combustible materials near light

such systems range between 5% and 15% and are

fixtures, especially halogen bulbs that get very hot.

increasing in availability.

Use only the correct bulb size in a light fixture.

The final element in escaping from a residential fire is having a

fire plan. A 1999 survey conducted by USFA [14] found

Use only properly rated extension cords for the

that 60% of Americans have an escape plan, with 42% of

job needed.

these individuals having practiced the plan. Surprisingly,

26% of Americans stated they had never thought about

Never use extension cords as a long-term solution

practicing an escape plan, and 3% believed escape

to the need for an additional outlet. Size the

planning to be unnecessary. In addition, of the people

extension cord to the wattage to be used.

who had a smoke alarm sound an alert over the past year

before the study, only 8% believed it to be a fire and

Never run extension cords inside walls or under

thought they should evacuate the building.

rugs because they generate heat that must be able

to dissipate.

Protection from electrical shocks and burns is also a vital

element in the overall safety of the home. According to

2-8

Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

Fire Extinguishers

an electrical cord and outlet with a slash through it (do not

A fire extinguisher should be listed and labeled by an

use it on an electrical fire).

independent testing laboratory such as FM (Factory

Mutual) or UL. Fire extinguishers are labeled according to

Fire extinguishers also have a number rating. For Type A

the type of fire on which they may be used. Fires involving

fires, 1 means 1¼ gallons of water; 2 means 2½ gallons of

wood or cloth, flammable liquids, electrical, or metal sources

water, 3 means 3¾ gallons of water, etc. For Type B and

react differently to extinguishers. Using the wrong type of

Type C fires, the number represents square feet. For example,

extinguisher on a fire could be dangerous and could worsen

2 equals 2 square feet, 5 equals 5 square feet, etc.

the fire. Traditionally, the labels A, B, C, and D have been

used to indicate the type of fire on which an extinguisher

Fire extinguishers can also be made to extinguish more

is to be used.

than one type of fire. For example, you might have an

extinguisher with a label that reads 2A5B. This would

Type A—Used for ordinary combustibles such as cloth,

mean this extinguisher is good for Type A fires with a

wood, rubber, and many plastics. These types of fire

2½-gallon equivalence and it is also good for Type B fires

usually leave ashes after they burn: Type A extinguishers

with a 5-square-foot equivalency. A good extinguisher to

for ashes. The Type A label is in a triangle on the

have in each residential kitchen is a 2A10BC fire extinguisher.

extinguisher.

You might also get a Type A for the living room and

bedrooms and an ABC for the basement and garage.

Type B—Used for flammable liquid fires such as oil,

gasoline, paints, lacquers, grease, and solvents. These

PASS is a simple acronym to remind you how to operate most

substances often come in barrels: Type B extinguishers for

fire extinguishers—pull, aim, squeeze, and sweep. Pull the

barrels. The Type B label is in a square on the

pin at the top of the cylinder. Some units require the

extinguisher.

releasing of a lock latch or pressing a puncture lever. Aim

the nozzle at the base of the fire. Squeeze or press the

Type C—Used for electrical fires such as in wiring, fuse boxes,

handle. Sweep the contents from side to side at the base

energized electrical equipment, and other electrical sources.

of the fire until it goes out. Shut off the extinguisher and

Electricity travels in currents; Type C extinguishers for

then watch carefully for any rekindling of the fire.

currents. The Type C label is in a circle on the

extinguisher.

Protection Against Toxic Gases

Protection against gas poisoning has been a problem since

Type D—Used for metal fires such as magnesium,

the use of fossil fuels was combined with relatively tight

titanium, and sodium. These types of fires are very dangerous

housing construction. NFPA [17] notes that National

and seldom handled by the general public; Type D means

Safety Council statistics reflect unintentional poisonings

don’t get involved. The Type D label is in a star on the

by gas or vapors, chiefly carbon monoxide (CO),

extinguisher.

numbering about 600 in 1998. One-fourth of these

involved heating or cooking equipment in the home. The

The higher the rating number on an A or B fire extinguisher,

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission [18] states

the more fire it can put out, but high-rated units are often

that in 2001 an estimated 130 deaths occurred as a result

the heavier models. Extinguishers need care and must be

of CO poisoning from residential sources; this decrease in

recharged after every use—a partially used unit might as

deaths is related to the increased use of CO detectors. In

well be empty. An extinguisher should be placed in the

addition, approximately 10,000 cases of CO-related injuries

kitchen and in the garage or workshop. Each extinguisher

occur each year. NFPA [17] also notes that, similar to fire

should be installed in plain view near an escape route and

deaths, unintentional CO deaths are highest for ages 4 years

away from potential fire hazards such as heating appliances.

and under and ages 75 years and older. Additional information

about home CO monitoring can be found in Chapter 5.

Recently, pictograms have come into use on fire extinguishers.

These picture the type of fire on which an extinguisher is

References

to be used. For instance, a Type A extinguisher has a

1. Ehlers VE, Steel EW. Municipal and rural

pictogram showing burning wood. A Type C extinguisher has

sanitation. Sixth edition. New York: McGraw-Hill

a pictogram showing an electrical cord and outlet. These

Book Company; 1965. p. 462-4.

pictograms are also used to show what not to use. For

example, a Type A extinguisher also show a pictogram of

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

2-9

National Institute on Aging. Hyperthermia—too

11. US Census Bureau. Historical census of housing

hot for your health, fact sheet health information.

tables—crowded and severely crowded housing

Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and

units, 2002. Washington, DC: US Census

Human Services; no date. Available from URL:

Bureau; 2003. Available from URL:

http://www.niapublications.org/engagepages/

http://www.census.gov/hhes/ www/housing/

hyperther.asp.

census/historic/crowding.html.

US Census Bureau. Historical census of housing

12. International Code Council. Fact sheet. Falls

tables—house heating fuel. Washington, DC: US

Church, VA: International Code Council; no date.

Census Bureau; 2002. Available from URL:

Available from URL: http://www.iccsafe.org/news/pdf/

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/

factssheet.pdf.

census/historic/fuels.html.

13. Home Safety Council. The state of home safety in

Zilber SA. Review of health effects of indoor

America—executive summary. Washington, DC:

lighting. Architronic 1993;2(3). Available from URL:

The Home Safety Council; 2002.

http://architronic.saed.kent.edu/v2n3/v2n3.06.html.

14. US Fire Administration. Welcome to the U.S. Fire

US Environmental Protection Agency.

Administration (USFA) Web site. Washington,

Information on levels of environmental noise

DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency,

requisite to protect public health and welfare with

Department of Homeland Security; 2003.

an adequate margin of safety. Washington, DC: US

Available from URL: http://www.usfa.fema.gov/.

Environmental Protection Agency; 1974.

15. US Environmental Protection Agency. Smoke

Public Health, England and Wales. The Household

detectors and radiation. Washington, DC: US

Appliances (Noise Emission) Regulations 1990.

Environmental Protection Agency; 2003. Available

London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office; 1990.

from URL: http://www.epa.gov/

radiation/sources/smoke_alarm.htm.

American Speech-Language-Hearing-Association.

Noise: noise is difficult to define. Rockville, MD:

16. Helmenstein AM. How do smoke detectors work?

American Speech-Language-Hearing-Association;

Photoelectric & ionization smoke detectors, what

2003. Available from URL: http://www.asha.org/

you need to know about chemistry. New York:

public/hearing/disorders/noise.htm.

About, Inc.; 2003. Available from URL:

http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/

US Environmental Protection Agency. Factoids:

aa071401a.htm.

drinking water and ground water statistics for

2002. Washington, DC: US Environmental

17. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA fact

Protection Agency, Office of Ground Water and

sheets—electrical safety. Quincy, MA: National

Drinking Water; January 2003. Available from URL:

Fire Protection Association; 2003. Available from

http://www.epa.gov/safewater.

URL: http://www.nfpa.org/Research/

NFPAFactSheets/Electrical/electrical.asp.

Hinrichsen D, Robey B, Upadhyay UD. The health

dimension. In: Solutions for a water-short world.

18. US Consumer Product Safety Commission.

Population Report, Series M, No. 14. Baltimore, MD:

Nonfire carbon monoxide deaths: 2001 annual

Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Population

estimate. Washington, DC: US Consumer

Information Program; 1998. Available from URL:

Product Safety Commission; 2004. Available from

http://www.infoforhealth.org/pr/m14/m14chap5.shtml

URL: http://www.cpsc.gov/LIBRARY/co04.pdf.

10. US Census Bureau. Historical census of housing

tables—plumbing facilities, 2002. Washington,

DC: US Census Bureau; 2003. Available from URL:

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/census/

historic/plumbing.html.

2-10

Basic Principles of Healthy Housing

Additional Sources of Information

Barbalace RC. Environmental justice and the NIMBY

principle. Environmental Chemistry.com: Environmental,

Chemistry, and Hazardous Materials Information and

Resources. Portland, ME; no date. Available from URL:

http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/hazmat/articles/

nimby.html.

Bryant B. The role of SNRE in the environmental justice

movement. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan; 1997.

Available from URL: http://www.umich.edu/~snre492/

history.html.

Bullard RD. Waste and racism: a stacked deck? Forum

Appl Res Public Pol spring 1993.

National Institute on Aging. Hypothermia: a cold weather

hazard, fact sheet health information. Bethesda, MD: US

Department of Health and Human Services; 2001.

Available from URL: http://www.niapublications.org/

engagepages/ hypother.asp.

National Weather Service. Natural hazard statistics; no

date. Silver Spring, MD: National Weather Service.

Available from URL: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/

om/hazstats.shtml.

US Census Bureau. New residential construction

(building permits, housing starts, and housing

completions). Washington, DC: US Census Bureau; no

date. Available from URL:

http://www.census.gov/newresconst.

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

2-11

Chapter 3: Housing Regulations

“The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the

the first tenements were built. In 1867, a report by the

force of the Crown. It may be frail—its roof may shake—the

New York Metropolitan Board of Health on living

wind may blow through it—the storm may enter, the rain

conditions in tenements convinced the New York State

may enter—but the King of England cannot enter—all his

legislature to pass the Tenement Housing Act of 1867 [2].

force dares not cross the threshold of the ruined tenement!”

The principal requirements of the act included the

following:

William Pitt, March 1763

•

Every room occupied for sleeping, if it does not

Introduction

communicate directly with the external air, must

William Pitt, arguing before the British Parliament against

have a ventilating or transom window of at least

excise officers entering private homes to levy the Cyder

3 square feet to the neighboring room or hall.

Tax, eloquently articulated this long-held and cherished

notion of the sanctity of private property. However, a

•

A proper fire escape is necessary on every tenement

person’s right to privacy is not absolute. There has always

or lodging house.

been a tension between the rights of property owners to do

whatever they desire with their property and the ability of

•

The roof is to be kept in repair and the stairs are to

the government to regulate uses to protect the safety,

have banisters.

health, and welfare of the community. Few, however,

would argue with the right and duty of a city government

•

At least one toilet is required for every

to prohibit the operation of a munitions factory or a

20 occupants for all such houses, and those toilets

chemical plant in the middle of a crowded residential

must be connected to approved disposal systems.

neighborhood.

•

Cleansing of every lodging house is to be to the

History

satisfaction of the Board of Health, which is to have

The first known housing laws are in the Code of Laws of

access at any time.

Hammurabi [1], who was the King of Babylonia, circa

1792-1750 BC. These laws addressed the responsibility of the

•

All cases of infectious disease are to be reported to

home builder to construct a quality home and outlined the

the Board by the owner or his agent; buildings are

implications to the builder if injury or harm came to the

to be inspected and, if necessary, disinfected or

owner as a result of the failure to do so. During the Puritan

vacated if found to be out of repair.

period (about 1620-1690), housing laws essentially

governed the behavior of the members of the society. For

There were also regulations governing distances between

example, no one was allowed to live alone, so bachelors,

buildings, heights of rooms, and dimensions of windows.

widows, and widowers were placed with other families as

Although this act had some beneficial influences on

servants or boarders. In 1652, Boston prohibited building

overcrowding, sewage disposal, lighting, and ventilation,

privies within 12 feet of the street. Around the turn of the

perhaps its greatest contribution was in laying a foundation

18th century, some New England communities

for more stringent future legislation.

implemented local ordinances that specified the size of

houses. During the 17th century, additional public policies

Jacob A. Riis, a Danish immigrant and a police reporter on

on housing were established. Because the English tradition

New York’s Lower East Side, published a book titled How

of using wooden chimneys and thatched roofs led to fires

the Other Half Lives—Studies Among the Tenements of New

in many dwellings, several colonies passed regulations

York [3], which swayed public opinion in the direction of

prohibiting them.

housing reform and resulted in the Tenement House Act of

1901. The basic principles established in the Tenement

After the early 17th century came an era of very rapid

House Act of 1901 still underlie much of the housing

metropolitan growth along the East Coast. This growth

efforts in New York City today [4]. Since 1909, with the

was due largely to immigration from Europe and was

establishment of the Philadelphia Housing Association, that city

spurred by the Industrial Revolution. The most serious

has had almost continual inspection and improvement.

housing problems began in New York about 1840 when

Chicago enacted housing legislation as early as 1889 and

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

3-1

health legislation as early as 1881. Regulations on

The Housing Act of 1949 allowed “primarily residential”

ventilation, light, drainage, and plumbing were put into

and “blighted” urban areas to be condemned, cleared of

effect in 1896.

buildings, and sold for private development. In addition

to assisting in slum clearance, this act also provided for

Before 1892, all government involvement in housing was

additional public housing and authorized the USDA to

at a local level. In 1892, however, the federal government

provide farmers with loans to construct, improve, repair

passed a resolution authorizing investigation of slum

or replace dwellings to provide decent, safe, and sanitary

conditions in cities with 200,000 or more inhabitants.

living conditions for themselves, their tenants, lessees,

Congress appropriated only $20,000 (roughly equal to

sharecroppers, and laborers.

$390,000 in 2003) to cover the expenses of this project,

which limited the number of investigations.

Because the many housing responsibilities administered

by various agencies within the federal government proved

No significant housing legislation was passed in the

unwieldy, the Housing and Urban Development Act was

20th century until 1929 [5], when the New York State

passed in 1965. The U.S. Department of Housing and

legislature passed its Multiple Dwelling Law. Other cities

Urban Development (HUD) was created to centralize the

and states followed New York’s example and permitted

responsibilities of the Housing and Home Finance Agency

less strict requirements in their codes. This decreased

and incorporated the FHA, the Federal National

what little emphasis there was on enforcement.

Mortgage Association, the Public Housing Administration,

Conditions declined until, by the 1930s, President

Urban Development Administration, and the Community

Franklin D. Roosevelt’s shocking report to the people was

Facilities Administration.

“that one-third of the nation is ill-fed, ill-housed, and ill-

clothed.” In response to the overwhelming loss of homes

Zoning, Housing Codes, and Building Codes

during the Great Depression, Congress passed the United

Housing is inextricably linked to the land on which it is

States Housing Act of 1937, which created the United

located. Changes in the patterns of land use in the United

States Housing Authority (USHA). This act subsidized

States, shifting demographics, an awareness of the need

construction of new public housing units and required

for environmental stewardship, and competing uses for

the elimination of at least an equivalent number of units

increasingly scarce (desirable) land have all placed added

from the local housing supply that were determined to be

stress on the traditional relationship between the property

inferior. In 1942, the USHA was renamed the Federal

owner and the community. This is certainly not a new

Public Housing Administration and, in 1947, was

development.

renamed the Public Housing Administration.

In the early settlement of this country, following the precedent

The federal government not only encouraged the

set by their forefathers from Great Britain, gunpowder

construction of public housing, but took on the role of

mills and storehouses were prohibited from the heavily

financing private housing. In 1938, the Federal National

populated portions of towns, owing to the frequent fires and

Mortgage Association was created. (Fannie Mae became a

explosions. Later, zoning took the form of fire districts

private organization in 1968 [6].) Its purpose was to

and, under implied legislative powers, wooden buildings

provide a secondary market for the FHA, created in 1934,

were prohibited from certain sections of a municipality.

and Veterans Administration (VA) mortgage loans. The

Massachusetts passed one of the first zoning laws in 1692.

Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, also known as

This law authorized Boston, Salem, Charlestown, and

the GI Bill of Rights, created a VA loan program

certain other market towns in the province to restrict the

guaranteeing home mortgage loans for veterans. This

establishment of slaughterhouses and stillhouses for

legislation, in conjunction with the FHA loan program,

currying leather to certain locations in each town.

was the impetus for initiating the huge program of home

construction and subsequent suburban growth following

Few people objected to such restrictions. Still, the tension

World War II. In 1946, the Farmers Home Administration,

remained between the right to use one’s land and the

housed in the United States Department of Agriculture

community’s right to protect its citizens. In 1926, the

(USDA), was created to make loans and grants for

United States Supreme Court took up the issue in Village

constructing and repairing farm homes and assisting rural

of Euclid, Ohio, v. Ambler Realty [7]. In this decision,

self-help housing groups.

the Court noted,

3-2

Housing Regulations

“Until recent years, urban life was comparatively

many cases, the housing inspector may be able to

simple; but with great increase and concentration of

eliminate violations or properties in violation of housing

population, problems have developed which require

codes through enforcement of the zoning ordinance.

additional restrictions in respect of the use and

occupation of private lands in urban communities.”

Zoning Objectives

As stated earlier, the purpose of a zoning ordinance is to

In explaining its reasoning, the Court said,

ensure that the land uses within a community are

regulated not only for the health, safety, and welfare of the

“the law of nuisances may be consulted not for the

community, but also are in keeping with the

purpose of controlling, but for the helpful aid of its

comprehensive plan for community development. The

analogies in the process of ascertaining the scope of the

provisions in a zoning ordinance that help to achieve

police power. Thus the question of whether the

development that provides for health, safety, and welfare

power exists to forbid the erection of a building of a

are designed to do the following:

particular kind or a particular use is to be

determined, not by an abstract consideration of the

•

Regulate height, bulk, and area of structure. To

building or other thing considered apart, but by

provide established standards for healthful housing

considering it in connection with the circumstances

within the community, regulations dealing with

and the locality… A nuisance may be merely the

building heights, lot coverage, and floor areas must

right thing in the wrong place—like a pig in the

be established. These regulations then ensure that

parlor instead of the barnyard.”

adequate natural lighting, ventilation, privacy, and

recreational areas for children will be realized.

Zoning, housing, and building codes were adopted to improve

These are all fundamental physiologic needs

the health and safety of people living in communities.

necessary for a healthful environment. Safety from

And, to some extent, they have performed this function.

fires is enhanced by separating buildings to meet

Certainly, housing and building codes, when enforced,

yard and open-space requirements. Through

have resulted in better constructed and maintained

requiring a minimum lot area per dwelling unit,

buildings. Zoning codes have been effective in

population density controls are established.

segregating noxious and dangerous enterprises from

residential areas. However, as the U.S. population has

•

Avoid undue levels of noise, vibration, glare, air

grown and changed from a rural to an urban then to a

pollution, and odor. By providing land-use

suburban society, land use and building regulations

category districts, these environmental stresses upon

developed for the 19th and early 20th centuries are

the individual can be reduced.

creating new health and safety problems not envisioned in

earlier times.

•

Lessen street congestion by requiring off-street

parking and off-street loading.

Zoning and Zoning Ordinances

Zoning is essentially a means of ensuring that a community’s

•

Facilitate adequate provision of water, sewerage,

land uses are compatible with the health, safety, and

schools, parks, and playgrounds.

general welfare of the community. Experience has shown

that some types of controls are needed to provide orderly

•

Provide safety from flooding.

growth in relation to the community plan for development.

Just as a capital improvement program governs public

•

Conserve property values. Through careful

improvements such as streets, parks and other recreational

enforcement of the zoning ordinance provisions,

facilities, schools, and public buildings, so zoning governs

property values can be stabilized and conserved.

the planning program with respect to the use of public

and private property.

To understand more fully the difference between zoning

and subdivision regulations, building codes, and housing

It is very important that housing inspectors know the general

ordinances, the housing inspector must know what cannot

nature of zoning regulations because properties in

be accomplished by a zoning ordinance. Items that

violation of both the housing code and the zoning ordinance

cannot be accomplished by a zoning ordinance include

must be brought into full compliance with the zoning

the following:

ordinance before the housing code can be enforced. In

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

3-3

• Overcrowding or substandard housing. Zoning

These initiatives are often called smart growth programs.

is not retroactive and cannot correct existing

It is imperative, if this approach is taken, that both

conditions. These are corrected through

governmental officials and citizens be involved in the

enforcement of a minimum standards housing code.

planning stage. Without this involvement, the community

may end up with major problems, such as overloaded

• Materials and methods of construction. Materials

infrastructure, structures of inappropriate construction

and methods of construction are enforced through

crowded together, and fire and security issues for

building codes rather than through zoning.

residents. Increased density could strain the existing water,

sewer and waste collection systems, as well as fire and

• Cost of construction. Quality of construction,

police services, unless proper planning is implemented.

and hence construction costs, are often regulated

through deed restrictions or covenants. Zoning

In recent years, some ordinances have been partially based

does, however, stabilize property values in an area

on performance standards rather than solely on land-use

by prohibiting incompatible development, such as

intensity. For example, some types of industrial developments

heavy industry in the midst of a well-established

may be permitted in a less intense use district provided

subdivision.

that the proposed land use creates no noise, glare, smoke,

dust, vibration, or other environmental stress exceeding

• Subdivision design and layout. Design and layout

acceptable standards and provided further that adequate

of subdivisions, as well as provisions for parks and

off-street parking, screening, landscaping, and similar

streets, are controlled through subdivision

measures are taken.

regulations.

Bulk and Height Requirements. Most early zoning

Content of the Zoning Ordinance

ordinances stated that, within a particular district, the

Zoning ordinances establish districts of whatever size,

height and bulk of any structure could not exceed certain

shape, and number the municipality deems best for

dimensions and specified dimensions for front, side, and

carrying out the purposes of the zoning ordinance. Most

rear yards. Another approach was to use floor-area ratios

cities use three major districts: residential (R), commercial

for regulation. A floor-area ratio is the relation between

(C), and industrial (I). These three may then be

the floor space of the structure and the size of the lot on

subdivided into many subdistricts, depending on local

which it is located. For example, a floor-area ratio of

conditions; e.g., R-1 (single-unit dwellings), R-2

1 would permit either a two-story building covering 50%

(duplexes), R-3 (low-rise apartment buildings), and so on.

of the lot, or a one-story building covering 100% of the lot, as

These districts specify the principal and accessory uses,

demonstrated in Figure 3.1. Other zoning ordinances

exceptions, and prohibitions [8].

specify the maximum amount of the lot that can be

covered or merely require that a certain amount of open

In general, permitted land uses are based on the intensity

space must be provided for each structure, and leave the

of land use—a less intense land use being permitted in a

builder the flexibility to determine the location of the

more intense district, but not vice versa. For example, a

structure. Still other ordinances, rather than specify a

single-unit residence is a less intense land use than a multiunit

particular height for the structure, specify the angle of

dwelling (defined by HUD as more than four living

light obstruction that will assure adequate air and light to

units) and hence would be permitted in a residential

the surrounding structures, as demonstrated in Figure 3.2.

district zoned for more intense land use (e.g., R-3). A

multiunit dwelling would not, however, be permitted in

Yard Requirements. Zoning ordinances also contain

an R-1 district. While intended to promote the health,

minimum requirements for front, rear, and side yards. These

safety, and general welfare of the community, housing

requirements, in addition to stating the lot dimensions,

trends in the last half of the 20th century have led a

usually designate the amount of setback required. Most

number of public health and planning officials to

ordinances permit the erection of auxiliary buildings in

question the blind enforcement of zoning districts. These

rear yards provided that they are located at stated

individuals, citing such problems as urban sprawl, have

distances from all lot lines and provided sufficient open

stated that municipalities need to adopt a more flexible

space is maintained. If the property is a corner lot,

approach to land use regulation—one that encourages

additional requirements are established to allow visibility

creating mixed-use spaces, increasing population densities,

for motorists.

and reducing reliance on the automobile.

3-4

Housing Regulations

Figure 3.1. Example of a Floor Area

Off-street Parking. Space for off-street parking and off-

another nonconforming use. Some zoning ordinances

street loading, especially for commercial buildings, is also

further provide a period of amortization during which

contained in zoning ordinances. These requirements are

nonconforming land use must be phased out.

based on the relationship of floor space or seating capacity

to land use. For example, a furniture store would require

Variances

fewer off-street parking spaces in relation to the floor area

Zoning ordinances contain provisions for permitting

than would a movie theater.

variances and providing a method for granting these

variances, subject to certain specified provisions. A

Exceptions to the Zoning Code

variance may be granted when, owing to the specific conditions

Nonconforming Uses

or use of a particular lot, an undue hardship would be

Because zoning is not retroactive, all zoning ordinances

imposed on the owner if the exact content of the

contain a provision for nonconforming uses. If a use has

ordinance is enforced. A variance may be granted due to

already been established within a particular district before the

the shape, topography, or other characteristic of the lot.

adoption of the ordinance, it must be permitted to

For example, suppose an irregularly shaped lot is located

continue, unless it can be shown to be a public nuisance.

in a district having a side yard requirement of 20 feet on a

side and a total lot size requirement of 10,000 square feet.

Provisions are, however, put into the ordinance to aid in

Further suppose that this lot contains 10,200 square feet

eliminating nonconforming uses over time. These

(and thus meets the total size requirement); however, due

provisions generally prohibit a) an enlargement or

to the irregular shape of the lot, there would be sufficient

expansion of the nonconforming use, b) reconstruction of

space for only a 15-foot side yard. Because a hardship

the nonconforming use if more than a certain portion of

would be imposed on the owner if the exact letter of the

the building should be destroyed, c) resumption of the

law is applied, the owner of the property could apply to

use after it has been abandoned for a period of specified

the zoning adjustment board for a variance. Because the

time, and d) changing the use to a higher classification or to

total area of the lot is sufficient and a lessening of the

Figure 3.2. Example of an Angle of Light Obstruction

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

3-5

ordinance requirements would not be detrimental to the

It is critical for the housing or building inspector and the

surrounding property, nor would it interfere with neighboring

zoning inspector to work closely in municipalities where

properties, a variance would probably be granted. Note

these positions and responsibilities are separate. Experience

that a variance is granted to the owner under specific

has shown that illegally converted properties are often

conditions. Should use of the property change, the

among the most substandard encountered in the municipality

variance would be voided.

and often contain especially dangerous housing code violations.

Exceptions

In communities where the zoning code is enforced effectively,

An exception is often confused with a variance. In every

the resulting zoning compliance helps to advance, as well

city there are some necessary uses that do not correspond

as sustain, many of the minimum standards of the

to the permitted land uses within the district. The zoning

housing code such as occupancy, ventilation, light, and

code recognizes, however, that if proper safeguards are

unimpeded egress. By the same token, building or

provided, these uses would not have a detrimental effect

housing inspectors can often aid the zoning inspector by

on the district. An example would be a fire station that

helping eliminate some nonconforming uses through code

could be permitted in a residential area, provided the

enforcement.

station house is designed and the property is properly

landscaped to resemble or fit in with the characteristics of the

Housing Codes

neighborhood in which it is located.

A housing code, regardless of who promulgates it, is basically

an environmental health protection code. Housing codes

Administration

are distinguished from building codes in that they cover

Zoning inspectors are essential to the zoning process

houses, not buildings in general. For example, the housing

because they have firsthand knowledge of a case. Often,

code requires that walls support the weight of the roof,

the zoning inspector may also be the building inspector or

any floors above, and the furnishings, occupants, etc.,

housing inspector. Because the building inspector or

within a building.

housing inspector is already in the field making

inspections, it is relatively easy for that individual to

Early housing codes primarily protected only physical health;

check compliance with the zoning ordinances. Compliance

hence, they were enforced only in slum areas. In the

is determined by comparing the actual land use with that

1970s, it was realized that, if urban blight and its associated

allowed for the area and shown on the zoning map.

human suffering were to be controlled, housing codes

must consider both physical and mental health and must

Each zoning ordinance has a map detailing the permitted

be administered uniformly throughout the community.

usage for each block. Using a copy of this map, the

inspector can make a preliminary check of the land use in

In preparing or revising housing codes, local officials must

the field. If the use does not conform, the inspector must

maintain a level of standards that will not merely be

then contact the Zoning Board to see whether the property in

minimal. Standards should maintain a living environment

question was a nonconforming use at the time of the

that contributes positively to healthful individual and

passage of the ordinance and whether an exception or variance

family living. The fact that a small portion of housing

has been granted. In cities where up-to-date records are

fails to meet a desirable standard is not a legitimate reason

maintained, the inspector can check the use in the field.

for retrogressive modification or abolition of a standard.

The adoption of a housing ordinance that establishes low

When a violation is observed, and the property owners

standards for existing housing serves only to legalize and

are duly notified of the violation, they have the right to

perpetuate an unhealthy living environment. Wherever

request a hearing before the Zoning Board of Adjustment

local conditions are such that immediate enforcement of

(also called the Zoning Board of Appeals in some cities).

some standards within the code would cause undue

The board may uphold the zoning enforcement officer or

hardship for some individuals, it is better to allow some

may rule in favor of the property owner. If the action of

time for compliance than to eliminate an otherwise

the zoning officer is upheld, the property owner may, if

satisfactory standard. When immediate health or safety

desired, seek relief by appealing the decision to the courts;

hazards are not involved, it is often wise to attempt to

otherwise, the violation must be corrected to conform to

create a reasonable timetable for accomplishing necessary

the zoning code.

code modifications.

3-6

Housing Regulations

History

dwellings were needed. Commonly called housing codes,

To assist municipalities with developing legislation necessary

these ordinances establish minimum standards to make

to regulate the quality of housing, the American Public

dwellings safe, sanitary, and fit for human habitation by

Health Association (APHA) Committee on the Hygiene

governing their condition and maintenance, their

of Housing prepared and published in 1952 a proposed

supplied utilities and facilities, and their occupancy. The

housing ordinance. This provided a prototype on which

2003 International Code Council (ICC) [13,14]

such legislation might be based and has served as the

International Residential Code-One- and Two-Family

basis for countless housing codes enacted in the United

Dwellings (R101.3) states

States since that time. Some municipalities enacted it without

change. Others made revisions by omitting some portions,

“the purpose of this code is to provide minimum

modifying others, and sometimes adding new provisions [9].

requirements to safeguard the public safety, health

and general welfare, through affordability, structural

The APHA ordinance was revised in 1969 and 1971. In 1975,

strength, means of egress, facilities, stability, sanitation,

APHA and the CDC jointly undertook the job of

light and ventilation, energy conservation, safety to

rewriting and updating this model ordinance. The new

fire and property from fire and other hazards

ordinance was entitled the APHA-CDC Recommended

attributed to the built environment.”

Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance [10]. The

most recent model ordinance was published by APHA in

Critical Requirements of an Effective Housing Program

1986 as Housing and Health: APHA-CDC Recommended

A housing code is limited in its effectiveness by several

Minimum Housing Standards [11]. This new ordinance is

factors. First, if the housing code does not contain standards

one of several model ordinances available to communities

that adequately protect the health and well-being of the

when they are interested in adopting a housing code.

individuals, it cannot be effective. The best-trained

housing inspector, if not armed with an adequate housing

A community should read and consider each element

code, can accomplish little good in the battle against

within the model code to determine its applicability to

urban blight.

their community. A housing code is merely a means to an

end. The end is the eventual elimination of all substandard

A second issue in establishing an effective housing code is

conditions within the home and the neighborhood. This end

the need to establish a baseline of current housing conditions.

cannot be achieved if the community adopts an

A systems approach requires that you establish where you

inadequate housing code.

are, where you are going, and how you plan to achieve your

goals. In using a systems approach, it is essential to know

Objectives

where the program started so that the success or failure of

The Housing Act of 1949 [12] gave new impetus to

various initiatives can be established. Without this

existing local, state, and federal housing programs

information, success cannot be replicated, because you

directed toward eliminating poor housing. In passing

cannot identify the obstacles navigated nor the elements

this legislation, Congress defined a new national

of success. Many initiatives fail because program

objective by declaring that “the general welfare and

administrators are without the necessary proof of success

security of the nation and the health and living

when facing funding shortfalls and budget cuts.

standards of its people...require a decent home and a

suitable living environment for every American family.”

A third factor affecting the quality of housing codes is

This mandate generated an awareness that the quality of

budget. Without adequate funds and personnel, the

housing and residential environment has an enormous

community can expect to lose the battle against urban

influence upon the physical and mental health and the

blight. It is only through a systematic enforcement effort

social well-being of each individual and, in turn, on the

by an adequately sized staff of properly trained inspectors

economic, political, and social conditions in every

that the battle can be won.

community. Consequently, public agencies, units of

government, professional organizations and others sought

A fourth factor is the attitude of the political bodies

ways to ensure that the quality of housing and the

within the area. A properly administered housing program

residential environment did not deteriorate.

will require upgrading substandard housing throughout the

community. Frequently, this results in political pressures

It soon became apparent that ordinances regulating the

being exerted to prevent the enforcement of the code in

supplied utilities and the maintenance and occupancy of

certain areas of the city. If the housing effort is backed

Healthy Housing Reference Manual

3-7

properly by all political elements, blight can be controlled

enabling legislation of the code needed to resolve the

and eventually eliminated within the community. If, however,

problem or there are gaps in jurisdiction.

the housing program is not permitted to choke out the

spreading influence of substandard conditions, urban

Content of a Housing Code

blight will spread like a cancer, engulfing greater and

Although all comprehensive housing codes or ordinances

greater portions of the city. Similarly, an effort directed at

contain a number of common elements, the provisions of

only the most seriously blighted blocks in the city will

communities will usually vary. These variations stem from

upgrade merely those blocks, while the blight spreads

differences in local policies, preferences, and, to a lesser

elsewhere. If urban blight is to be controlled, it must be

extent, needs. They are also influenced by the standards

cut out in its entirety.

set by the related provisions of the diverse building,

electrical, and plumbing codes in use in the municipality.

A fifth element that limits housing programs is whether

they are supported fully by the other departments within

Within any housing code there are generally five features:

the city. Regardless of which city agency administers the

housing program, other city agencies must support the

Definitions of terms used in the code.

activities of the housing program. In addition, great effort

should be expended to obtain the support and

Administrative provisions showing who is

cooperation of the community. This can be accomplished

authorized to administer the code and the basic

through public awareness and public information

methods and procedures that must be followed in

programs, which can result in considerable support or

implementing and enforcing the sections of the

considerable resistance to the efforts of the program.

code. Administrative provisions deal with items

such as reasonable hours of inspections, whether

A sixth limitation is an inadequately or improperly

serving violation notices is required, how to notify

trained inspection staff. Inspectors should be capable of

absentee owners or resident-owners or tenants, how to

evaluating whether a serious or a minor problem exists in

process and conduct hearings, what rules to follow

matters ranging from the structural stability of a building

in processing dwellings alleged to be unfit for

to the health and sanitary aspects of the structure. If they

human habitation, and how to occupy or use

do not have the authority or expertise, they should

dwellings finally declared fit.

develop that expertise or establish effective and efficient

agreements with overlapping agencies to ensure timely

Substantive provisions specifying the various types

and appropriate response.

of health, building, electrical, heating, plumbing,

maintenance, occupancy, and use conditions that

A seventh item that frequently restricts the effectiveness of

constitute violations of the housing code. These

a housing program is the fact that many housing groups

provisions can be and often are grouped into three

fail to do a complete job of evaluating housing

categories: minimum facilities and equipment for

problems. The deterioration of an area may be due to

dwelling units; adequate maintenance of dwellings

factors such as housing affordability, tax rates, or issues

and dwelling units, as well as their facilities and

related to investment cost and return. In many cases, the

equipment; and occupancy conditions of dwellings

inspection effort is restricted to merely evaluating the

and dwelling units.

conditions that exist, with little or no thought given to

why these conditions exist. If a housing effort is to be

Court and penalty sections outlining the basis for

successful, as part of a systems approach, the question of

court action and thepenalty or penalties to which

why the homes deteriorated must be considered. Was

the alleged violator will be subjected if proved

it because of environmental stresses within the

guilty of violating one or more provisions of the code.

neighborhood that need to be eliminated or was it

because of apathy on the part of the occupants? In either

Enabling, conflict, and unconstitutionality

case, if the causative agent is not removed, then the

clauses providing the date a new or amended code

inspector faces an annual problem of maintaining the

will take effect, prevalence of more stringent

quality of that residence. It is only by eliminating the

provision when there is a conflict of two codes,

causes of deterioration that the quality of the

severability of any part of the ordinance that

neighborhood can be maintained. Often the regulatory

might be found unconstitutional, and retention of

authority does not have adequate authority within the

all other parts in full course and effect. In any city

3-8

Housing Regulations

following the format of the APHA-CDC Recommended

deed registration there. If it does not, the advice of the

Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance

municipal law department should be sought about the next

[10] the housing officer or other supervisor in

steps to follow.

charge of housing inspections will also adopt

appropriate housing rules and regulations from

Due Process Requirements. Every notice, complaint,

time to time to clarify or further refine the

summons, or other type of legal paper concerning alleged

provisions of the ordinance. When rules and

housing code violations in a given dwelling or dwelling

regulations are used, care should be taken that the

unit must be legally served on the proper party to be valid

department is not overburdened with a number of

and to prevent harassment of innocent parties. This might

minor rules and regulations. Similarly, a housing

be the owner, agent, or tenant, as required by the code. It

ordinance that encompasses all rules and regulations

is customary to require that the notice to correct existing

might have difficulty because any amendments to

violations and any subsequent notices or letters be served by

it will require action by the political element of

certified or registered mail with return receipt requested. The

the community. Some housing groups, in

receipt serves as proof of service if the case has to be taken

attempting to obtain amendments to an

to court.

ordinance, have had the entire ordinance thrown

out by the political bodies.

Due process requirements also call for clarity and

specificity with respect to the alleged violations, both in

Administrative Provisions of a Housing Code

the violation notices and the court complaint-summons.

The administrative procedures and powers of the housing

For this reason, special care must be taken to be complete

inspection agency, its supervisors, and its staff are similar to

and accurate in listing the violations and charges. To

other provisions in that all are based on the police power of

illustrate, rather than direct the violator to repair all

the state to legislate for public health and safety. In

windows where needed, the violator should be told

addition, the administrative provisions, and to a lesser

exactly which windows and what repairs are involved.

extent, the court and penalty provisions, outline how the

police power is to be exercised in administering and

The chief limitation on the due process requirement, with

enforcing the code.

respect to service of notices, lies in cases involving

immediate threats to health and safety. In these instances,

Generally, the administrative elements deal with

the inspection agency or its representative may, without